Compositions and methods for enzyme immobilization

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure relates to compositions of immobilized enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate cells and uses thereof. In particular, the present disclosure provides genetically engineered minicells with enzymes self-assembled on their surface. The immobilized enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate minicells, has agricultural, industrial, and environmental applications due to their improved stability durability and, reusability. Also, provided are methods for producing and purifying enzyme-immobilized minicells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. provisional application No. 62/491,603 filed on Apr. 28, 2017, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

FIELD

The present disclosure is generally directed to compositions and methods for immobilizing enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate cells. The immobilized enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate cells, described herein provide improved stability and efficiency for agricultural, industrial, and environmental applications. Also, disclosed herein are methods for producing achromosomal and/or anucleate cells with enzymes immobilized.

STATEMENT REGARDING SEQUENCE LISTING

The Sequence Listing associated with this application is provided in text format in lieu of a paper copy, and is hereby incorporated by reference into the specification. The name of the text file containing the Sequence Listing is AGRO_001_01WP_SeqList_ST25.txt. The text file is 104 KB, was created on Apr. 27, 2018, and is being submitted electronically via EFS-Web.

BACKGROUND

Due to the evolution of modern biotechnology, the enzyme industry has been rapidly developed over the past decades. Enzymes found in nature have been used since ancient times in the production of food products, such as cheese, sourdough, beer, wine and vinegar, and in the manufacture of commodities such as leather, indigo and linen. In these processes enzymes were not used in any pure or well-characterized form, but for example, enzymes produced by spontaneously growing microorganisms. Along with the development of fermentation processes, the production of enzymes by use of selected production strains, made it possible to manufacture enzymes as purified, well-characterized preparations even on a large scale.

Despite their excellent catalytic capabilities and properties of enzymes, enzymes prior to implementation have issues to be improved, such as stability, activity, inhibition by reaction products, selectivity towards non-natural substrates and reusability. Currently, many immobilization techniques to immobilize enzymes on a solid material, such as a porous support aim to simplify the recovery process, enhances process control, and reduces operational costs. However, these immobilization processes are associated with toxic reagents and/or chemical reactions to ensure stability of the enzymes on a solid material.

Thus, there is a great need in the art for the technical development of enzyme immobilization on enzyme-friendly supports, which make production of industrial enzymes in more environment-friendly, process-efficient, and cost-efficient manners. Also, there is a need for the production of enzyme-immobilized minicells such as described herein which are easily recoverable, recyclable, durable, and stable with extended active life cycle of enzyme to increase the usage of immobilized enzymes in industry.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure provides compositions and methods for immobilizing enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate cells. In particular, the present disclosure provides compositions and methods for production of minicells having immobilized enzymes on their surface and uses thereof.

The present disclosure is directed to an industrially suitable anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform and a composition thereof. Also, disclosed herein a method of producing an industrially suitable anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform and applications thereof.

In some embodiments, an industrially suitable anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform, is provided, which comprising: a) an intact anucleated cell derived from a protease deficient parental cell, wherein said anucleated cell comprising an expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface of said cell. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to the parental cell. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase. In embodiments, glucose isomerase. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is derived from a prokaryotic cell. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram negative bacterial genus. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial genus selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia, Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, and Agrobacterium. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial species selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram positive bacterial genus. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial genus selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus, Corynebacterium, and Lactobacillus. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial species selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, and Lactobacillus acidophilus. In embodiments, intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a parental bacterial cell deficient in WprA protease. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis parental bacterial cell. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient KO7 B. subtilis parental bacterial cell. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis parental bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of: (1) CU403,DIVIVA; (2) CU403,DIVIVB,SPO-; (3) CU403,DIVIVB; and (4) CU403,DIVIVB1, wherein at least one protease encoding gene has been repressed, deleted, or silenced. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a parental bacterial cell deficient in Lon and OmpT proteases. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient E. coli parental bacterial cell. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient E. coli parental bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of: BL21, BL21(DE3), BL21-AI, LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) and B8. In embodiments, said intact anucleated cell is derived from a eukaryotic cell.

In some embodiments, an industrially suitable anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform, is provided, which comprising: a) an intact anucleated cell derived from a protease deficient parental cell, wherein said anucleated cell comprising an expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface of said cell. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a transmembrane domain and is selected from the group consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence). In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor coat (Gene III).

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a second polypeptide on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous polypeptide on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a transmembrane domain and is selected from the group consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting of: LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor coat (Gene III). In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a carbohydrate binding module. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a carbohydrate binding module selected from the group consisting of: a cellulose binding domain, a xylan binding domain, a chitin binding domain, and a lignin binding domain. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a polypeptide on its surface that increases adhesion to a plant surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a plant adhesion polypeptide on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a carbohydrate binding module that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous carbohydrate binding module that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme. In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a cellulose binding domain that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme In embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous cellulose binding domain that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell is used as a resin for immobilizing a polypeptide, wherein the anucleated cell expresses endogenous surface expressing moiety that have a binding domain, and wherein the binding domain is capable of binding to the polypeptide that has a binding site. the anucleated cell is used for purifying a polypeptide, wherein the polypeptide is immobilized to the anucleated cell by incubation.

In some embodiments, a method of improving activity and stability of an anucleated cell-based enzyme, is provided, which comprises: applying the anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform to a substrate, wherein the anucleated cell is derived from a protease deficient parental cell, and wherein the anucleated cell comprises an expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface of said cell. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to the parental cell. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity, and wherein said enzymatic activity is associated with fatty acid and oily stain removal, biodiesel production via transesterification, dough stability and conditioning in baking, pitch control and contaminant control for production of pulp and paper, and resolution of chiral alcohols and amines. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase, wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for enzymatic activity. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase, wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for enzymatic activity, and wherein said enzymatic activity is associated with glucose to fructose conversion for production of high-fructose corn syrup.

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell comprises at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes immobilized to the surface of said cell. In embodiments, each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety. In embodiments, each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is heterologous to the parental cell. In embodiments, each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said enzymatically active moiety is selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase. In embodiments, one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is lipase. In embodiments, one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is glucose isomerase. In embodiments, one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is protease. In embodiments, each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a transmembrane domain and is selected from the group consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence). In embodiments, each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor coat (Gene III). In embodiments, the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes are co-localized to a desired locus, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes have its enzymatic activity at the desired locus. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzymes are lipase and protease. In embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzymes are glucose isomerase and protease. In embodiments, the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes have a complimentary function. In embodiments, the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes act synergistically. In embodiments, the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes each work to carry out a portion of an overall enzymatic reaction.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary bacterial minicell-inducing vector for a minC knockout to produce protease-deficient minicells. The pUC57 vector was inserted with a recombinant DNA insert comprising 5′ end nucleotide sequence of minC gene, a chloramphenicol resistant gene (CmR) with cat promoter, and 3′ end nucleotide sequence of minC gene. The hairpin loops flanked by 5′ and 3′ ends of minC gene are inserted into the insert to stop transcriptional regulation of other neighboring genes in the genome where the insert is integrated.

FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary bacterial minicell-inducing vector for a minD knockout to produce protease-deficient minicells. The pUC57 vector was inserted with a recombinant DNA insert comprising 5′ end nucleotide sequence of minD gene, a chloramphenicol resistant gene (CmR) with cat promoter, and 3′ end nucleotide sequence of minD gene. The hairpin loops flanked by 5′ and 3′ ends of minD gene are inserted into the insert to stop transcriptional regulation of other neighboring genes in the genome where the insert is integrated.

FIG. 3 illustrates an exemplary bacterial minicell-inducing vector for a minC/minD knockout to produce protease-deficient minicells. The pUC57 vector was inserted with a recombinant DNA insert comprising 5′ end nucleotide sequence of minD gene, a chloramphenicol resistant gene (CmR) with cat promoter, and 3′ end nucleotide sequence of minC gene. The hairpin loops, flanked by 5′ end of minD gene and 3′ ends of minC gene, are inserted into the insert to stop transcriptional regulation of other neighboring genes in the genome where the insert is integrated.

FIG. 4A illustrates an exemplary pAIDA-1-Lipase vector with an AIDA-1 surface expression system for display of a lipase protein flanked by 6×His, GFP nanobody and Myc tags on the surface of minicells. FIG. 4B illustrates an exemplary pAIDA-1 lipase surface expression cassette, comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AIDA-1 Autotransporter signal peptide, GFP nanobody, lipase, and AIDA-1 autotransporter translocation domain with tags including 6×His Tag and Myc Tag as well as two protease cleavage sites including HRV3C and TEV.

FIG. 5A illustrates an exemplary pGEX-6P-1 AIDA-1-Lipase vector with AIDA-1 surface expression system for display of a lipase protein flanked by 6×His, GFP nanobody and Myc tags on the surface of minicells. FIG. 5B illustrates an exemplary AIDA-1 lipase surface expression cassette, comprising nucleotide sequences encoding AIDA-1 Autotransporter signal peptide, GFP nanobody, lipase, and AIDA-1 autotransporter translocation domain with tags including 6×His Tag and Myc Tag as well as two protease cleavage sites including HRV3C and TEV.

FIG. 6A illustrates an exemplary pGEX-6P-1 Brk-Lipase vector with a serum resistance autotransporter Brk surface expression system for display of a lipase protein flanked by 6×His, GFP nanobody and Myc tags on the surface of minicells. FIG. 6B illustrates an exemplary Brk-lipase surface expression cassette, comprising nucleotide sequences encoding Brk Autotransporter signal peptide, GFP nanobody, lipase, and Brk autotransporter translocation domain with tags including 6×His Tag and Myc Tag as well as two protease cleavage sites including HRV3C and TEV.

FIG. 7A illustrates an exemplary pGEX-6P-1 Inak-Lipase vector with an Ice Nucleation Protein InaK surface expression system for display of a lipase protein on the surface of minicells. The lipase-encoding nucleotide sequence is ligated at its 5′ end to Inak and at its 3′ end to 6×His, GFP nanobody and Myc tags. FIG. 7B illustrates an exemplary Inak-lipase surface expression cassette, comprising nucleotide sequences encoding Inak translocation domain, lipase, and GFP nanobody, with tags including 6×His Tag and Myc Tag as well as two protease cleavage sites including HRV3C and TEV.

FIG. 8A illustrates an exemplary pET-9a vector for expression of a protein of interest in the protease-deficient strain with T7 RNA polymerase. FIG. 8B illustrates an exemplary pGEX-6P-1 vector for expression of a protein of interest in the protease-deficient strain without T7 RNA polymerase.

FIG. 9A shows His-Tag staining of the expressed lipase protein fused with Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence 1 protein (AIDA-1) on the surface of non-permeabilized minicells. The fusion AIDA-1 lipases were expressed on the surface of the transformed minicells (FIG. 9A), compared to control minicells that did not have the recombinant fusion lipase expression vector (FIG. 9C). FIG. 9B also shows His-Tag staining of the expressed lipase protein fused with Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein (BRK) on the surface of non-permeabilized protease-deficient minicells. The fusion Brk-lipases were expressed on the surface of the transformed minicells (FIG. 9B), compared to control minicells that did not have the recombinant fusion lipase expression vector (FIG. 9D). FIGS. 9C and 9D show no or little lipase expression from non-permeabilized control minicells. Arrow points out the expressed lipases.

FIG. 10A-D shows His-Tag staining results of lipase protein fused with Ice Nucleation Activation K (InaK) linker protein on the surface of minicells. The minicells were either non-permeabilized (FIGS. 10A and 10C) or permeabilized (FIGS. 10B and 10D). The fusion lipases were expressed on the surface of the transformed minicells (FIGS. 10A and 10B), compared to control minicells that did not have the recombinant AIDA-1 lipase expression vector (FIGS. 10C and 10D). FIG. 10A shows His-Tag staining of lipases expressed from non-permeabilized protease-deficient minicells. FIG. 10B shows His-Tag staining of lipases expressed from permeabilized protease-deficient minicells. FIG. 10C shows no or little lipase expression from non-permeabilized control minicells. FIG. 10D also shows no or little lipase expression from permeabilized control minicells. Arrow points out the expressed lipases.

FIG. 11A-C shows lipase activity results of the purified lipase protein fused with three surface expression mechanisms, including AIDA-1, BRK, and InaK, respectively. The lipase was purified from the minicells and tested for its activity using lipase probe 4-nitrophenyl-butyrate. FIG. 11A shows activity of lipase purified from protease-deficient minicells expressing the recombinant AIDA-1 lipase fusion expression vector. FIG. 11B shows activity of lipase purified from protease-deficient minicells expressing the recombinant Brk-lipase fusion expression vector. FIG. 11C shows that activity of lipase purified from protease-deficient minicells expressing the recombinant InaK-lipase fusion expression vector. (Protease Deficient control: protease-deficient B8 strain without fusion lipase, Wild Strain Control: wild type p678-54 strain without fusion lipase, Fusion Protein Control: his-tag purified CBM protein without lipase activity)

FIG. 12A-C shows lipase activity results of the fusion lipase proteins on the surface of minicells. Kinetic analysis of the reaction was analyzed by continuous spectrophotometric rate determination at 400 nm. FIG. 12A shows activity of surface-expressed lipase that is fused to AIDA-1. FIG. 12B shows activity of surface-expressed lipase that is fused to BRK. FIG. 12C shows activity of surface-expressed lipase that is fused to InaK.

FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary pDG1728 vector with a Sortase autotransporter for enzyme immobilization in gram positive bacteria cells. Sortase expression is induced with D(+) xylose.

FIG. 14 illustrates an exemplary pUC57 vector for expressing a protein of interest including proteases such as a protease subtilisin on the surface of minicells by inserting surface expression mechanisms including but not limited to AIDA-1, BRK, and InaK into this vector.

FIG. 15 illustrates an exemplary pUC57 vector for expressing an amylase A on the surface of minicells by inserting surface expression mechanisms including but not limited to AIDA-1, BRK, and InaK into this vector.

FIG. 16 illustrates delivery of self-immobilized enzymes on a minicell that can be simply purified. The enzyme-immobilized minicell is an achromosomal and/or anucleate cell that is not contaminated and/or disrupted by DNA.

FIG. 17A-B shows scanning electron micrograph images of minicell formation in E. coli (FIG. 17A) and of protease-deficient minicells in which minC gene is knocked out and/or removed (FIG. 17B). The size of exemplary minicells is less than one micrometer as shown in FIG. 17B.

FIG. 18 illustrates an exemplary pUC18 vector for a protease WprA knockout to produce protease-deficient minicells from bacterial strains with WprA protease. The pUC18 vector was inserted with a recombinant DNA insert comprising 5′ end nucleotide sequence of WprA gene, a chloramphenicol resistant gene (CmR) with cat promoter, and 3′ end nucleotide sequence of WprA gene. The hairpin loops flanked by 5′ and 3′ ends of wprA gene are inserted into the insert to stop transcriptional regulation of other neighboring genes in the genome where the insert is integrated.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure relates generally to compositions and methods for immobilizing enzymes of interest on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate cells. In particular, the present disclosure provides compositions and methods for production of minicells having immobilized enzymatically active polypeptides on their surface and uses thereof.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides compositions and methods for immobilizing enzymatically active polypeptides including, but are not limited to, lipases, phospholipases, transacylases, transaminases, pectinase, proteases, amylases, cellulases, cutinases, esterases, acylases, invertases, isomerases, lyases, glucosidases, oxidoreductases, transferases, ligases, and amidases, displayed on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate cells. In other embodiments, enzymatically active polypeptides comprise lipase, glucose isomerase, alpha amylase, cellulase (endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases), beta amylase, pectin lyase, isomerase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenases (e.g. alcohol dehydrogenases, lactate dehydrogenases, acetaldehyde dehydrogenases, aldehyde dehydrogenases, pyruvate dehydrogenases, and succinate dehydrogenases), xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase. Also, enzymatically active polypeptides further comprise amyloglucosidase, pullulanase, cyclodextrin-glycosyltransferase, pectin methyl esterase, glucose oxidase, lactase, beta-glucanase, acetolactate decarboxylase, pectate lyase, nitrilase, and amyloglucosidase. In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide is lipase. In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide is glucose isomerase.

In some embodiments, the achromosomal and/or anucleate cells are derived from eubacterial, archaebacterial, and/or eukaryotic cell. In other embodiments, minicells having immobilized enzymes on their surface can have applications for agriculture, animal feed, food, beverages, industrial enzymes, textiles, pulp and paper, biofuels, fermentation, bioremediation, bioenergy, electronics, defense, bioenergy, household care, pharmaceuticals, and others uses.

Definitions

While the following terms are believed to be well understood by one of ordinary skill in the art, the following definitions are set forth to facilitate explanation of the presently disclosed subject matter.

The term “a” or “an” refers to one or more of that entity, i.e. can refer to a plural referents. As such, the terms “a” or “an”, “one or more” and “at least one” are used interchangeably herein. In addition, reference to “an element” by the indefinite article “a” or “an” does not exclude the possibility that more than one of the elements is present, unless the context clearly requires that there is one and only one of the elements.

As used herein the terms “cellular organism” “microorganism” or “microbe” should be taken broadly. These terms are used interchangeably and include, but are not limited to, the two prokaryotic domains, Bacteria and Archaea, as well as certain eukaryotic fungi and protists.

The term “prokaryotes” is art recognized and refers to cells which contain no nucleus or other cell organelles. The prokaryotes are generally classified in one of two domains, the Bacteria and the Archaea. The definitive difference between organisms of the Archaea and Bacteria domains is based on fundamental differences in the nucleotide base sequence in the 16S ribosomal RNA.

The term “Archaea” refers to a categorization of organisms of the division Mendosicutes, typically found in unusual environments and distinguished from the rest of the prokaryotes by several criteria, including the number of ribosomal proteins and the lack of muramic acid in cell walls. On the basis of ssrRNA analysis, the Archaea consist of two phylogenetically-distinct groups: Crenarchaeota and Euryarchaeota. On the basis of their physiology, the Archaea can be organized into three types: methanogens (prokaryotes that produce methane); extreme halophiles (prokaryotes that live at very high concentrations of salt (NaCl); and extreme (hyper) thermophilus (prokaryotes that live at very high temperatures). Besides the unifying archaeal features that distinguish them from Bacteria (i.e., no murein in cell wall, ester-linked membrane lipids, etc.), these prokaryotes exhibit unique structural or biochemical attributes which adapt them to their particular habitats. The Crenarchaeota consists mainly of hyperthermophilic sulfur-dependent prokaryotes and the Euryarchaeota contains the methanogens and extreme halophiles.

“Bacteria” or “eubacteria” refers to a domain of prokaryotic organisms. Bacteria include at least 11 distinct groups as follows: (1) Gram-positive (gram+) bacteria, of which there are two major subdivisions: (1) high G+C group (Actinomycetes, Mycobacteria, Micrococcus, others) (2) low G+C group (Bacillus, Clostridia, Lactobacillus, Staphylococci, Streptococci, Mycoplasmas); (2) Proteobacteria, e.g., Purple photosynthetic+non-photosynthetic Gram-negative bacteria (includes most “common” Gram-negative bacteria); (3) Cyanobacteria, e.g., oxygenic phototrophs; (4) Spirochetes and related species; (5) Planctomyces; (6) Bacteroides, Flavobacteria; (7) Chlamydia; (8) Green sulfur bacteria; (9) Green non-sulfur bacteria (also anaerobic phototrophs); (10) Radioresistant micrococci and relatives; (11) Thermotoga and Thermosipho thermophiles.

A “eukaryote” is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes belong to the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining feature that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells (the aforementioned Bacteria and Archaea) is that they have membrane-bound organelles, especially the nucleus, which contains the genetic material, and is enclosed by the nuclear envelope.

The terms “genetically modified host cell,” “recombinant host cell,” and “recombinant strain” are used interchangeably herein and refer to host cells that have been genetically modified by the cloning and transformation methods of the present disclosure. Thus, the terms include a host cell (e.g., bacteria, yeast cell, fungal cell, CHO, human cell, etc.) that has been genetically altered, modified, or engineered, such that it exhibits an altered, modified, or different genotype and/or phenotype (e.g., when the genetic modification affects coding nucleic acid sequences of the microorganism), as compared to the naturally-occurring organism from which it was derived. It is understood that in some embodiments, the terms refer not only to the particular recombinant host cell in question, but also to the progeny or potential progeny of such a host cell.

The term “wild-type microorganism” or “wild-type host cell” describes a cell that occurs in nature, i.e. a cell that has not been genetically modified. In the disclosure, “wild type strain” or “wild strain” or “wild type cell line” refers to a cell strain/line that can produce minicells. In some embodiments, wild type bacterial strains and/or cell lines such as E. coli strain p678-54 and B. subtilis strain CU403 can make miniature cells deficient in DNA. Methods for producing such minicells are known in the art. See, for example, Adler et al., 1967, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 57:321-326; Inselburg J, 1970 J. Bacteriol. 102(3):642-647; Frazer 1975, Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 69:1-84, Reeve et al 1973, J. Bacteriol. 114(2):860-873; and Mendelson et al 1974 J. Bacteriol. 117(3): 1312-1319.

The term “genetically engineered” may refer to any manipulation of a host cell's genome (e.g. by insertion, deletion, mutation, or replacement of nucleic acids).

The term “control” or “control host cell” refers to an appropriate comparator host cell for determining the effect of a genetic modification or experimental treatment. In some embodiments, the control host cell is a wild type cell. In other embodiments, a control host cell is genetically identical to the genetically modified host cell, save for the genetic modification(s) differentiating the treatment host cell.

As used herein, the term “allele(s)” means any of one or more alternative forms of a gene, all of which alleles relate to at least one trait or characteristic. In a diploid cell, the two alleles of a given gene occupy corresponding loci on a pair of homologous chromosomes.

As used herein, the term “locus” (loci plural) means a specific place or places or a site on a chromosome where for example a gene or genetic marker is found.

As used herein, the term “genetically linked” refers to two or more traits that are co-inherited at a high rate during breeding such that they are difficult to separate through crossing.

A “recombination” or “recombination event” as used herein refers to a chromosomal crossing over or independent assortment.

As used herein, the term “phenotype” refers to the observable characteristics of an individual cell, cell culture, organism, or group of organisms which results from the interaction between that individual's genetic makeup (i.e., genotype) and the environment.

As used herein, the term “chimeric” or “recombinant” when describing a nucleic acid sequence or a protein sequence refers to a nucleic acid, or a protein sequence, that links at least two heterologous polynucleotides, or two heterologous polypeptides, into a single macromolecule, or that rearranges one or more elements of at least one natural nucleic acid or protein sequence. For example, the term “recombinant” can refer to an artificial combination of two otherwise separated segments of sequence, e.g., by chemical synthesis or by the manipulation of isolated segments of nucleic acids by genetic engineering techniques.

As used herein, a “synthetic nucleotide sequence” or “synthetic polynucleotide sequence” is a nucleotide sequence that is not known to occur in nature or that is not naturally occurring. Generally, such a synthetic nucleotide sequence will comprise at least one nucleotide difference when compared to any other naturally occurring nucleotide sequence.

As used herein, a “synthetic amino acid sequence” or “synthetic peptide” or “synthetic protein” is an amino acid sequence that is not known to occur in nature or that is not naturally occurring. Generally, such a synthetic protein sequence will comprise at least one amino acid difference when compared to any other naturally occurring protein sequence.

As used herein, the term “nucleic acid” refers to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, either ribonucleotides or deoxyribonucleotides, or analogs thereof. This term refers to the primary structure of the molecule, and thus includes double- and single-stranded DNA, as well as double- and single-stranded RNA. It also includes modified nucleic acids such as methylated and/or capped nucleic acids, nucleic acids containing modified bases, backbone modifications, and the like. The terms “nucleic acid” and “nucleotide sequence” are used interchangeably.

As used herein, the term “gene” refers to any segment of DNA associated with a biological function. Thus, genes include, but are not limited to, coding sequences and/or the regulatory sequences required for their expression. Genes can also include non-expressed DNA segments that, for example, form recognition sequences for other proteins. Genes can be obtained from a variety of sources, including cloning from a source of interest or synthesizing from known or predicted sequence information, and may include sequences designed to have desired parameters.

As used herein, the term “homologous” or “homologue” or “ortholog” is known in the art and refers to related sequences that share a common ancestor or family member and are determined based on the degree of sequence identity. The terms “homology,” “homologous,” “substantially similar” and “corresponding substantially” are used interchangeably herein. They refer to nucleic acid fragments wherein changes in one or more nucleotide bases do not affect the ability of the nucleic acid fragment to mediate gene expression or produce a certain phenotype. These terms also refer to modifications of the nucleic acid fragments of the instant disclosure such as deletion or insertion of one or more nucleotides that do not substantially alter the functional properties of the resulting nucleic acid fragment relative to the initial, unmodified fragment. It is therefore understood, as those skilled in the art will appreciate, that the disclosure encompasses more than the specific exemplary sequences. These terms describe the relationship between a gene found in one species, subspecies, variety, cultivar or strain and the corresponding or equivalent gene in another species, subspecies, variety, cultivar or strain. For purposes of this disclosure homologous sequences are compared. “Homologous sequences” or “homologues” or “orthologs” are thought, believed, or known to be functionally related. A functional relationship may be indicated in any one of a number of ways, including, but not limited to: (a) degree of sequence identity and/or (b) the same or similar biological function. Preferably, both (a) and (b) are indicated. Homology can be determined using software programs readily available in the art, such as those discussed in Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (F. M. Ausubel et al., eds., 1987) Supplement 30, section 7.718, Table 7.71. Some alignment programs are MacVector (Oxford Molecular Ltd, Oxford, U.K.), ALIGN Plus (Scientific and Educational Software, Pennsylvania) and AlignX (Vector NTI, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). Another alignment program is Sequencher (Gene Codes, Ann Arbor, Mich.), using default parameters.

As used herein, the term “endogenous” or “endogenous gene,” refers to the naturally occurring gene, in the location in which it is naturally found within the host cell genome. In the context of the present disclosure, operably linking a heterologous promoter to an endogenous gene means genetically inserting a heterologous promoter sequence in front of an existing gene, in the location where that gene is naturally present. An endogenous gene as described herein can include alleles of naturally occurring genes that have been mutated according to any of the methods of the present disclosure.

As used herein, the term “exogenous” is used interchangeably with the term “heterologous,” and refers to a substance coming from some source other than its native source. For example, the terms “exogenous protein,” or “exogenous gene” refer to a protein or gene from a non-native source or location, and that have been artificially supplied to a biological system.

As used herein, the term “nucleotide change” refers to, e.g., nucleotide substitution, deletion, and/or insertion, as is well understood in the art. For example, mutations contain alterations that produce silent substitutions, additions, or deletions, but do not alter the properties or activities of the encoded protein or how the proteins are made.

As used herein, the term “protein modification” refers to, e.g., amino acid substitution, amino acid modification, deletion, and/or insertion, as is well understood in the art.

As used herein, the term “at least a portion” or “fragment” of a nucleic acid or polypeptide means a portion having the minimal size characteristics of such sequences, or any larger fragment of the full length molecule, up to and including the full length molecule. A fragment of a polynucleotide of the disclosure may encode an enzymatically active portion of a genetic regulatory element. An enzymatically active portion of a genetic regulatory element can be prepared by isolating a portion of one of the polynucleotides of the disclosure that comprises the genetic regulatory element and assessing activity as described herein. Similarly, a portion of a polypeptide may be 4 amino acids, 5 amino acids, 6 amino acids, 7 amino acids, and so on, going up to the full length polypeptide. The length of the portion to be used will depend on the particular application. A portion of a nucleic acid useful as a hybridization probe may be as short as 12 nucleotides; in some embodiments, it is 20 nucleotides. A portion of a polypeptide useful as an epitope may be as short as 4 amino acids. A portion of a polypeptide that performs the function of the full-length polypeptide would generally be longer than 4 amino acids.

Variant polynucleotides also encompass sequences derived from a mutagenic and recombinogenic procedure such as DNA shuffling. Strategies for such DNA shuffling are known in the art. See, for example, Stemmer (1994) PNAS 91:10747-10751; Stemmer (1994) Nature 370:389-391; Crameri et al. (1997) Nature Biotech. 15:436-438; Moore et al. (1997) J. Mol. Biol. 272:336-347; Zhang et al. (1997) PNAS 94:4504-4509; Crameri et al. (1998) Nature 391:288-291; and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,605,793 and 5,837,458.

For PCR amplifications of the polynucleotides disclosed herein, oligonucleotide primers can be designed for use in PCR reactions to amplify corresponding DNA sequences from cDNA or genomic DNA extracted from any organism of interest. Methods for designing PCR primers and PCR cloning are generally known in the art and are disclosed in Sambrook et al. (2001) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3^(rd) ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, N.Y.). See also Innis et al., eds. (1990) PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications (Academic Press, New York); Innis and Gelfand, eds. (1995) PCR Strategies (Academic Press, New York); and Innis and Gelfand, eds. (1999) PCR Methods Manual (Academic Press, New York). Known methods of PCR include, but are not limited to, methods using paired primers, nested primers, single specific primers, degenerate primers, gene-specific primers, vector-specific primers, partially-mismatched primers, and the like.

The term “primer” as used herein refers to an oligonucleotide which is capable of annealing to the amplification target allowing a DNA polymerase to attach, thereby serving as a point of initiation of DNA synthesis when placed under conditions in which synthesis of primer extension product is induced, i.e., in the presence of nucleotides and an agent for polymerization such as DNA polymerase and at a suitable temperature and pH. The (amplification) primer is preferably single stranded for maximum efficiency in amplification. Preferably, the primer is an oligodeoxyribonucleotide. The primer must be sufficiently long to prime the synthesis of extension products in the presence of the agent for polymerization. The exact lengths of the primers will depend on many factors, including temperature and composition (A/T vs. G/C content) of primer. A pair of bi-directional primers consists of one forward and one reverse primer as commonly used in the art of DNA amplification such as in PCR amplification.

As used herein, “promoter” refers to a DNA sequence capable of controlling the expression of a coding sequence or functional RNA. In some embodiments, the promoter sequence consists of proximal and more distal upstream elements, the latter elements often referred to as enhancers. Accordingly, an “enhancer” is a DNA sequence that can stimulate promoter activity, and may be an innate element of the promoter or a heterologous element inserted to enhance the level or tissue specificity of a promoter. Promoters may be derived in their entirety from a native gene, or be composed of different elements derived from different promoters found in nature, or even comprise synthetic DNA segments. It is understood by those skilled in the art that different promoters may direct the expression of a gene in different tissues or cell types, or at different stages of development, or in response to different environmental conditions. It is further recognized that since in most cases the exact boundaries of regulatory sequences have not been completely defined, DNA fragments of some variation may have identical promoter activity.

As used herein, the phrases “recombinant construct”, “expression construct”, “chimeric construct”, “construct”, and “recombinant DNA construct” are used interchangeably herein. Also, “construct”, “vector”, and “plasmid” are used interchangeably herein. A recombinant construct comprises an artificial combination of nucleic acid fragments, e.g., regulatory and coding sequences that are not found together in nature. For example, a chimeric construct may comprise regulatory sequences and coding sequences that are derived from different sources, or regulatory sequences and coding sequences derived from the same source, but arranged in a manner different than that found in nature. Such construct may be used by itself or may be used in conjunction with a vector. If a vector is used then the choice of vector is dependent upon the method that will be used to transform host cells. For example, a plasmid vector can be used. The skilled artisan is well aware of the genetic elements that must be present on the vector in order to successfully transform, select and propagate host cells comprising any of the isolated nucleic acid fragments of the disclosure. The skilled artisan will also recognize that different independent transformation events will result in different levels and patterns of expression (Jones et al., (1985) EMBO J. 4:2411-2418; De Almeida et al., (1989) Mol. Gen. Genetics 218:78-86), and thus that multiple events must be screened in order to obtain lines displaying the desired expression level and pattern. Such screening may be accomplished by Southern analysis of DNA, Northern analysis of mRNA expression, immunoblotting analysis of protein expression, or phenotypic analysis, among others. Vectors can be plasmids, viruses, bacteriophages, pro-viruses, phagemids, transposons, artificial chromosomes, and the like, that replicate autonomously or can integrate into a chromosome of a host cell. A vector can also be a naked RNA polynucleotide, a naked DNA polynucleotide, a polynucleotide composed of both DNA and RNA within the same strand, a poly-lysine-conjugated DNA or RNA, a peptide-conjugated DNA or RNA, a liposome-conjugated DNA, or the like, that is not autonomously replicating. As used herein, the term “expression” refers to the production of a functional end-product e.g., an mRNA or a protein (precursor or mature).

“Operably linked” means in this context the sequential arrangement of the promoter polynucleotide according to the disclosure with a further oligo- or polynucleotide, resulting in transcription of said further polynucleotide.

As used herein, the term “display” refers to the exposure of the polypeptide of interest on the outer surface of the minicell. By way of non-limiting example, the displayed polypeptide may be a protein or a protein domain which is either expressed on the minicell membrane or is associated with the minicell membrane such that the extracellular domain or domain of interest is exposed on the outer surface of the minicell (expressed and displayed on the surface of the minicell or expressed in the parental cell to be displayed on the surface of the segregated/budded minicell). In all instances, the “displayed” protein or protein domain is available for interaction with extracellular components. A membrane-associated protein may have more than one extracellular domain, and a minicell of the disclosure may display more than one membrane-associated protein.

As used herein, the terms “polypeptide”, “protein” and “protein domain” refer to a macromolecule made up of a single chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Polypeptides of the invention may comprise naturally occurring amino acids, synthetic amino acids, genetically encoded amino acids, non-genetically encoded amino acids, and combinations thereof. Polypeptides may include both L-form and D-form amino acids.

As used herein, the term “enzymatically active polypeptide” refers to a polypeptide which encodes an enzymatically functional protein. The term “enzymatically active polypeptide” includes but not limited to fusion proteins which perform a biological function. Exemplary enzymatically active polypeptides, include but not limited to enzymes/enzyme moiety (e.g. wild type, variants, or engineered variants) that specifically bind to certain receptors or biological/chemical substrates to effect a biological function such as biological signal transduction or chemical inactivation.

As used herein, “industrially suitable” refers to utilization, and applications, of the anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform, in contexts outside of internally administered animal host applications, e.g. outside of administered human therapeutics.

As used herein, the term “protease-deficient strain” refers to a strain that is deficient in one or more endogenous proteases. For example, protease deficiency can be created by deleting, removing, knock-out, silencing, suppressing, or otherwise downregulating at lease on endogenous protease. Said proteases can include catastrophic proteases. For example, BL21 (DE3) E. coli strain is deficient in proteases Lon and OmpT. E. coli strain has cytoplasmic proteases and membrane proteases that can significantly decrease protein production and localization to the membrane. In some embodiments, a protease-deficient strain can maximize production and localization of a protein of interest to the membrane of the cell.

As used herein, the term “anucleated cell” refers to a cell that lacks a nucleus and also chromosomal DNA and which can also be termed as an “anucleate cell”. Because eubacterial and archaebacterial cells, unlike eukaryotic cells, naturally do not have a nucleus (a distinct organelle that contains chromosomes), these non-eukaryotic cells are of course more accurately described as being “without chromosomes” or “achromosomal.” Nonetheless, those skilled in the art often use the term “anucleated” when referring to bacterial minicells in addition to other eukaryotic minicells. Accordingly, in the present disclosure, the term “minicells” encompasses derivatives of eubacterial cells that lack a chromosome; derivatives of archaebacterial cells that lack their chromosome(s), and anucleate derivatives of eukaryotic cells that lack a nucleus and consequently a chromosome. Thus, in the present disclosure, “anucleated cell” or “anucleate cell” can be interchangeably used with the term “achromosomal cell.”

As used herein, the term “binding site,” means a molecular structure or compound, such as a protein, a polypeptide, a polysaccharide, a glycoprotein, a lipoprotein, a fatty acid, a lipid or a nucleic acid or a particular region in such molecular structure or compound or a particular conformation of such molecular structure or compound, or a combination or complex of such molecular structures or compounds. In certain embodiments, at least one binding site is on an intact living plant. An “intact living plant,” as used herein, means a plant as it grows, whether it grows in soil, in water or in artificial substrate, and whether it grows in the field, in a greenhouse, in a yard, in a garden, in a pot or in hydroponic culture systems. An intact living plant preferably comprises all plant parts (roots, stem, branches, leaves, needles, thorns, flowers, seeds etc.) that are normally present on such plant in nature, although some plant parts, such as, e.g., flowers, may be absent during certain periods in the plant's life cycle.

A “binding domain,” as used herein, means the whole or part of a proteinaceous (protein, protein-like or protein containing) molecule that is capable of binding using specific intermolecular interactions to a target molecule. A binding domain can be a naturally occurring molecule, it can be derived from a naturally occurring molecule, or it can be entirely artificially designed. A binding domain can be based on domains present in proteins, including but not limited to microbial proteins, protease inhibitors, toxins, fibronectin, lipocalins, single-chain antiparallel coiled coil proteins or repeat motif proteins. Non-limiting examples of such binding domains are carbohydrate binding modules (CBM) such as cellulose binding domain to be targeted to plants. In some embodiments, a cell adhesion moiety comprises a binding domain.

Minicells

Minicells are the result of aberrant, asymmetric cell division, and contain membranes, peptidoglycan, ribosomes, RNA, protein, and often plasmids but no chromosome. (Frazer A C and Curtiss III, Production, Properties and Utility of Bacterial Minicells, Curr. Top. Microbial. Immunol. 69:1-84 (1975)). Because minicells lack chromosomal DNA, minicells cannot divide or grow, but they can continue other cellular processes, such as ATP synthesis, replication and transcription of plasmid DNA, and translation of mRNA. Although chromosomes do not segregate into minicells, extrachromosomal and/or episomal genetic expression elements may segregate, or may be introduced into minicells after segregation from parent cells.

In embodiments, the minicells described herein are non-naturally occurring.

In some embodiments, the disclosure provides a composition comprising a plurality of minicells, wherein each minicell of said plurality comprises an enzymatically active polypeptide displayed on the surface of the minicell, wherein said enzymatically active polypeptide has enzymatic activity. The enzymatic activity is derived from enzymatically active polypeptides disclosed in the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the invention provides a composition comprising a plurality of intact, bacterially-derived minicells, wherein each minicell of said plurality comprises an enzymatically active polypeptide displayed on the surface of the bacterial minicell, wherein said enzymatically active polypeptide has enzymatic activity. In some embodiments, the composition comprises minicells which further comprise a second polypeptide displayed on the surface of the bacterial minicell, to increase adhesion to a subject and/or subjects including, but are not limited to substrates of enzymes, receptors, metal, plastic, soil, bacteria, fungi, pathogens, germs, plants, animals, human, and the like. In some embodiments, the composition comprises a mixture of minicells, wherein certain minicells within the mixed minicell population display the enzymatically active polypeptide or display the second polypeptide including subject adhesion increasing polypeptide or display both.

Eubacterial Minicells

One type of minicell is a eubacterial minicell. For reviews of eubacterial cell cycle and division processes, see Rothfield et al., Annu. Rev. Genet., 33:423-48, 1999; Jacobs et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96:5891-5893, May, 1999; Koch, Appl. and Envir. Microb., Vol. 66, No. 9, pp. 3657-3663; Bouche and Pichoff, Mol Microbiol, 1998. 29: 19-26; Khachatourians et al., J Bacteriol, 1973. 116: 226-229; Cooper, Res Microbiol, 1990. 141: 17-29; and Danachie and Robinson, “Cell Division: Parameter Values and the Process,” in: Escherichia Coli and Salmonella Typhimurium: Cellular and Molecular Biology, Neidhardt, Frederick C., Editor in Chief, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., 1987, Volume 2, pages 1578-1592, and references cited therein; and Lutkenhaus et al., “Cell Division,” Chapter 101 in: Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium: Cellular and Molecular Biology, 2^(nd) Ed., Neidhardt, Frederick C., Editor in Chief, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., 1996, Volume 2, pages 1615-1626, and references cited therein. When DNA replication and/or chromosomal partitioning is altered, membrane-bounded vesicles “pinch off” from parent cells before transfer of chromosomal DNA is completed. As a result of this type of dysfunctional division, minicells are produced which contain an intact outer membrane, inner membrane, cell wall, and all of the cytoplasm components but do not contain chromosomal DNA.

In some embodiments, the bacterially-derived minicells are produced from a strain, including, but are not limited to a strain of Escherichia coli, Bacillus spp., Salmonella spp., Listeria spp., Mycobacterium spp., Shigella spp., or Yersinia spp. In some embodiments, the bacterially-derived minicells are produced from a strain that naturally produces minicells. Such natural minicell producing strains produce minicells, for example, at a 2: 1 ratio (2 bacterial cells for every one minicell). In certain embodiments, exemplary bacterial strains that naturally produce minicells include, but are not limited to E. coli strain number P678-54, Coli Genetic Stock Center (CGSC) number: 4928 and B. subtilis strain CU403.

As one example, mutations in B. subtilis smc genes result in the production of minicells (Britton et al., 1998, Genes and Dev. 12:1254-1259; Moriya et al., 1998, Mol Microbiol 29:179-87). Disruption of smc genes in various cells is predicted to result in minicell production therefrom.

As another example, mutations in the divIVA gene of Bacillus subtilis results in minicell production. When expressed in E. coli, B. subtilis or yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, a DivIVA-GFP protein is targeted to cell division sites therein, even though clear homologs of DivIVA do not seem to exist in E. coli, B. subtilis or S. pombe (David et al., 2000, EMBO J. 19:2719-2727. Over- or under-expression of B. subtilis DivIVA or a homolog thereof may be used to reduce minicell production in a variety of cells.

In some embodiments, the minicell-producing bacteria is a Gram-negative bacteria. The Gram-negative bacteria includes, but is not limited to, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. including Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella spp. including Shigella flexneri, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Agrobacterium, Campylobacter jejuni, Lactobacillus spp., Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Legionella pneumophila. In some embodiments, the minicell-producing gram-negative bacteria can produce minicells naturally caused by endogenous or exogenous mutation(s) associated with cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning. In some embodiments, the minicell-producing bacteria comprises endogenous or exogenous gene(s) that is involved in cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning, where the gene is genetically modified such as by homologous recombination, compared to a corresponding wild-type gene. In some embodiments, the minicell-producing gram-negative bacteria is deficient in protease and/or its activity naturally and/or by genetic engineering techniques disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the protease-deficient minicell-producing gram-negative bacteria comprises a recombinant expression vector comprising a gene or genes that is involved in a protein of interest disclosed in the present disclosure.

In some embodiments, the minicell-producing bacteria can be a Gram-positive bacteria. The Gram-positive bacteria includes, but is not limited to, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Corynebacterium Glutamicum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Staphylococcus spp., or Streptococcus spp. In some embodiments, the minicell-producing gram-positive bacteria can produce minicells naturally caused by endogenous or exogenous mutation(s) associated with cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning. In some embodiments, the minicell-producing gram-positive bacteria comprises endogenous or exogenous gene(s) that is involved in cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning, where the gene is genetically modified such as by homologous recombination, compared to a corresponding wild-type gene. In some embodiments, the minicell-producing gram-positive bacteria is deficient in protease and/or its activity naturally and/or by genetic engineering techniques disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the protease-deficient minicell-producing gram-positive bacteria comprises a recombinant expression vector comprising a gene or genes that is involved in a protein of interest disclosed in the present disclosure.

The minicell-producing bacteria can be a Extremophilic bacteria. The Extremophilic bacteria includes, but is not limited to, Thermophiles including Thermus aquaticus, Psychrophiles, Piezophiles, Halophilic bacteria, Acidophile, Alkaliphile, Anaerobe, Lithoautotroph, Oligotroph, Metallotolerant, Oligotroph, Xerophil or Polyextremophile. In some embodiments, the minicell-producing Extremophilic bacteria can produce minicells naturally caused by endogenous or exogenous mutation(s) associated with cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning. In some embodiments, the minicell-producing Extremophilic bacteria comprises endogenous or exogenous gene(s) that is involved in cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning, where the gene is genetically modified such as by homologous recombination, compared to a corresponding wild-type gene. In some embodiments, the minicell-producing Extremophilic bacteria is deficient in protease and/or its activity naturally and/or by genetic engineering techniques disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the protease-deficient minicell-producing Extremophilic bacteria comprises a recombinant expression vector comprising a gene or genes that is involved in a protein of interest disclosed in the present disclosure.

Eukaryotic Minicells

Achromosomal eukaryotic minicells (i.e., anucleate cells) are within the scope of the disclosure. Yeast cells are used to generate fungal minicells. See, e.g., Lee et al., Ibd1p, a possible spindle pole body associated protein, regulates nuclear division and bud separation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Biochim Biophys Acta 3:239-253, 1999; Kopecka et al., A method of isolating anucleate yeast protoplasts unable to synthesize the glucan fibrillar component of the wall J Gen Microbiol 81:111-120, 1974; and Yoo et al., Fission yeast Hrp1, a chromodomain ATPase, is required for proper chromosome segregation and its overexpression interferes with chromatin condensation, Nucl Acids Res 28:2004-2011, 2000. Cell division in yeast is reviewed by Gould and Simanis, The control of septum formation in fission yeast, Genes & Dev 11:2939-51, 1997).

In some embodiments, the eukaryotic minicells can be produced from yeast cells, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris and/or Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

As one example, mutations in the yeast genes encoding TRF topoisomerases result in the production of minicells, and a human homolog of yeast TRF genes has been stated to exist (Castano et al., 1996, Nucleic Acids Res 24:2404-10). Mutations in a yeast chromodomain ATPase, Hrp1, result in abnormal chromosomal segregation; (Yoo et al., 2000 Nuc. Acids Res. 28:2004-2011). Disruption of TRF and/or Hrp1 function is predicted to cause minicell production in various cells. Genes involved in septum formation in fission yeast (see, e.g., Gould et al., 1997 Genes and Dev. 11:2939-2951) can be used in like fashion.

Platelets are a non-limiting example of eukaryotic minicells. Platelets are anucleate cells with little or no capacity for de novo protein synthesis. The tight regulation of protein synthesis in platelets (Smith et al., 1999, Vasc Med 4:165-72) may allow for the over-production of exogenous proteins and, at the same time, under-production of endogenous proteins. Thrombin-activated expression elements such as those that are associated with Bcl-3 (Weyrich et al., Signal-dependent translation of a regulatory protein, Bcl-3, in activated human platelets, Cell Biology 95:5556-5561, 1998) may be used to modulate the expression of exogenous genes in platelets.

As another non-limiting example, eukaryotic minicells are generated from tumor cell lines (Gyongyossy-Issa and Khachatourians, Tumour minicells: single, large vesicles released from cultured mastocytoma cells (1985) Tissue Cell 17:801-809; Melton, Cell fusion-induced mouse neuroblastomas HPRT revertants with variant enzyme and elevated HPRT protein levels (1981) Somatic Cell Genet. 7: 331-344).

Yeast cells are used to generate fungal minicells. See, e.g., Lee et al., Ibd1p, a possible spindle pole body associated protein, regulates nuclear division and bud separation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Biochim Biophys Acta 3:239-253, 1999; Kopecka et al., A method of isolating anucleate yeast protoplasts unable to synthesize the glucan fibrillar component of the wall J Gen Microbiol 81:111-120, 1974; and Yoo et al., Fission yeast Hrp1, a chromodomain ATPase, is required for proper chromosome segregation and its overexpression interferes with chromatin condensation, Nucl Acids Res 28:2004-2011, 2000. Cell division in yeast is reviewed by Gould and Simanis, The control of septum formation in fission yeast, Genes & Dev 11:2939-51, 1997). In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches production of yeast minicells.

Archaebacterial Minicells

The term “archaebacterium” is defined as is used in the art and includes extreme thermophiles and other Archaea (Woese, C. R., L. Magrum. G. Fox. 1978. Archaebacteria. Journal of Molecular Evolution. 11:245-252). Three types of Archaebacteria are halophiles, thermophiles and methanogens. By physiological definition, the Archaea (informally, archaes) are single-cell extreme thermophiles (including thermoacidophiles), sulfate reducers, methanogens, and extreme halophiles. The thermophilic members of the Archaea include the most thermophilic organisms cultivated in the laboratory. The aerobic thermophiles are also acidophilic; they oxidize sulfur in their environment to sulfuric acid. The extreme halophiles are aerobic or microaerophilic and include the most salt tolerant organisms known. The sulfate-reducing Archaea reduce sulfate to sulfide in extreme environment. Methanogens are strict anaerobes, yet they gave rise to at least two separate aerobic groups: the halophiles and a thermoacidophilic lineage. Non-limiting examples of halophiles include Halobacterium cutirubrum and Halogerax mediterranei. Non-limiting examples of methanogens include Methanococcus voltae; Methanococcus vanniela; Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum; Methanococcus voltae; Methanothermus fervidus; and Methanosarcina barkeri. Non-limiting examples of thermophiles include Azotobacter vinelandii; Thermoplasma acidophilum; Pyrococcus horikoshii; Pyrococcus furiosus; and Crenarchaeota (extremely thermophilic archaebacteria) species such as Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius.

Archaebacterial minicells are within the scope of the invention. Archaebacteria have homologs of eubacterial minicell genes and proteins, such as the MinD polypeptide from Pyrococcus furiosus (Hayashi et al., EMBO J. 20:1819-28, 2001). It is thus possible to create Archaebacterial minicells by methods such as, by way of non-limiting example, overexpressing the product of a min gene isolated from a prokaryote or an archaebacterium; or by disrupting expression of a min gene in an archaebacterium of interest by, e.g., the introduction of mutations thereof or antisense molecules thereto. See, e.g., Laurence et al., Genetics 152:1315-1323, 1999.

By physiological definition, the Archaea (informally, archaes) are single-cell extreme thermophiles (including thermoacidophiles), sulfate reducers, methanogens, and extreme halophiles. The thermophilic members of the Archaea include the most thermophilic organisms cultivated in the laboratory. The aerobic thermophiles are also acidophilic; they oxidize sulfur in their environment to sulfuric acid. The extreme halophiles are aerobic or microaerophilic and include the most salt tolerant organisms known. The sulfate-reducing Archaea reduce sulfate to sulfide in extreme environment. Methanogens are strict anaerobes, yet they gave rise to at least two separate aerobic groups: the halophiles and a thermoacidophilic lineage. In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches production of archaeal minicells.

Bacterial Minicell Production

Minicells are produced by parent cells having a mutation in, and/or overexpressing, or under expressing a gene involved in cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning, or from parent cells that have been exposed to certain conditions, that result in aberrant fission of bacterial cells and/or partitioning in abnormal chromosomal segregation during cellular fission (division). The term “parent cells” or “parental cells” refers to the cells from which minicells are produced. Minicells, most of which lack chromosomal DNA (Mulder et al., Mol Gen Genet, 221: 87-93, 1990), are generally, but need not be, smaller than their parent cells. Typically, minicells produced from E. coli cells are generally spherical in shape and are about 0.1 to about 0.3 um in diameter, whereas whole E. coli cells are about from about 1 to about 3 um in diameter and from about 2 to about 10 um in length. Micrographs of E. coli cells and minicells that have been stained with DAPI (4:6-diamidino-z-phenylindole), a compound that binds to DNA, show that the minicells do not stain while the parent E. coli are brightly stained. Such micrographs demonstrate the lack of chromosomal DNA in minicells. (Mulder et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 221:87-93, 1990).

Minicells are achromosomal, membrane-encapsulated biological nanoparticles (≤400 nm) that are formed by bacteria following a disruption in the normal division apparatus of bacterial cells. Minicells can also be 400 nm to 650 nm in size. In essence, minicells are small, metabolically active replicas of normal bacterial cells with the exception that they contain no chromosomal DNA and as such, are non-dividing and non-viable. Although minicells do not contain chromosomal DNA, the ability of plasmids, RNA, native and/or recombinantly expressed proteins, and other metabolites have all been shown to segregate into minicells. Some methods of construction of minicell-producing bacterial strains are discussed in detail in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/154,951 (US Publication No. US/2003/0194798 A1), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

Disruptions in the coordination between chromosome replication and cell division lead to minicell formation from the polar region of most rod-shaped prokaryotes. Disruption of the coordination between chromosome replication and cell division can be facilitated through the overexpression of some of the genes involved in septum formation and binary fission. Alternatively, minicells can be produced in strains that harbor mutations in genes that modulate septum formation and binary fission. Impaired chromosome segregation mechanisms can also lead to minicell formation as has been shown in many different prokaryotes.

Plasmid Based Methods of Minicell Production

In some embodiments, minicell production can be achieved by the overexpression or mutation of genes involved in the segregation of nascent chromosomes into daughter cells. For example, mutations in the parC or mukB loci of E. coli have been demonstrated to produce minicells. Both affect separate requisite steps in the chromosome segregation process in bacteria. Manipulation of wild type levels of any given gene involved in the chromosome segregation process that result in minicell production will have similar effects in other family members.

Because the cell division and chromosome replication processes are so critical to survival, there exists a high level of genetic and functional conservancy amongst prokaryotic family members with respect to genes responsible for these processes. The overexpression or mutation of a cell division gene capable of driving minicell production in one family member, can be used to produce minicells in another. For example, it has been shown that the overexpression E. coli ftsZ gene in other Enterobacteriacea family members such as Salmonella spp. and Shigella spp as well as other class members such as Pseudomonas spp. will result in similar levels of minicell production.

In some embodiments, minicells can be produced in E. coli by the overproduction of the protein FtsZ which is an essential component of the Min division system by which E. coli operates. This protein polymerizes during cell division to form a ring-like structure at the potential site of division. This ring recruits other proteins which complete the division. Overproduction of this protein in E. coli results in the inability for this ring to be spatially restricted to the midsection of the cell, thus resulting in production of minicells upon cell division. Because the overproduction of FtsZ can create minicells, it can be overexpressed using a plasmid based system.

The same can be demonstrated in the mutation-based minicell producing bacterial strains. For example, deletion of the Min locus in any of bacterial strains results in minicell production. Cell division genes in which mutation can lead to minicell formation include but are not limited to the min genes (such as minC, minD, and minE).

In some embodiments, E. coli rely on the min system in order to ensure proper replication of parent cells into daughter cells. This min system (known as the minB operon) consists of 3 parts, minD, minC, and minE. These genes work together in order to control the placement of the Z-ring which is comprised of polymerized FtsZ protein. MinC consists of two distinct domains, both of which interact directly with the FtsZ protein in order to inhibit polymerization (Z-ring formation). MinD is a protein that is associated with the membrane that forms at one of the cell's poles and polymerizes toward the cell's mid-point. It binds MinC which is distributed throughout the cytoplasm. MinE is a protein that binds to MinD as well and releases MinC. It polymerizes into a ring like shape and oscillates from pole to pole in the cell.

This system results in the sequestering of MinC bound to FtsZ (inactivating it) to the polar ends of the cell. By doing this, and due to the oscillating effect of MinE, the system creates a high chance that FtsZ polymerizes in the middle of cell and forms a Z-ring. This sets the division septum of the cell at the midpoint in the cell, which results in two cells with equal genetic information upon completion of division.

In some embodiments, this system can be manipulated in order to shift the Z-ring to a polar end of the cell which excludes the nucleoid DNA upon completion of replication. The Z-ring can be shifted by not allowing the cell to sequester MinC to the polar ends of the cell. In the absence of MinC or MinD, or overexpression of MinE, E. coli cells will form achromosomal and/or anucleate cells. The FtsZ and the Min systems for causing asymmetrical cell division are exemplified by Piet et al, 1990, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:1129-1133 and Xuan-Chuan et al, 2000, J. Bacteriol. 182(21):6203-62138, each of which is incorporated herein by reference.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure is compatible with all genetic design and cloning methods. That is, in some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches the use of traditional cloning techniques such as polymerase chain reaction, restriction enzyme digestions, ligation, homologous recombination, RT PCR, and others generally known in the art and are disclosed in for example: Sambrook et al. (2001) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (3^(rd) ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, N.Y.), incorporated herein by reference.

Genes can be introduced in a site directed fashion using homologous recombination. Homologous recombination permits site specific modifications in endogenous genes and thus inherited or acquired mutations may be corrected, and/or novel alterations may be engineered into the genome. Homologous recombination and site-directed integration in plants are discussed in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,451,513; 5,501,967 and 5,527,695.

In some embodiments, minicells are produced by deleting, mutating, knocking out, or disrupting minC, minD, and/or minC and minD gene(s) in bacteria by traditional gene engineering techniques including homologous recombination. In other embodiments, minicells are produced by overexpressing certain genes such as ftsZ and/or minE in bacteria.

Controlled Production of Minicells

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches mutating cell populations by introducing, deleting, or replacing selected portions of genomic DNA. Thus, in some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches methods for targeting mutations to a specific locus such as ftsZ, minC, minD, minC/D, and minE. In other embodiments, the present disclosure teaches the use of gene editing technologies such as ZFNs, TALENS, CRISPR or homing endonucleases, to selectively edit target DNA regions. In aspects, the targeted DNA regions is ftsZ, minC, minD, minC/D, and minE.

Engineered nucleases such as zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), Transcription Activator Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs), engineered homing endonucleases, and RNA or DNA guided endonucleases, such as CRISPR/Cas such as Cas9 or CPF1, are particularly appropriate to carry out some of the methods of the present disclosure. Additionally or alternatively, RNA targeting systems can use used, such as CRISPR/Cas systems have RNA targeting nucleases.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches uses of gene editing using a Type II CRISPR system such as Cas9 Type II CRISPR systems, or “Cas9-like” systems. Type II systems rely on a i) single endonuclease protein, ii) a transactiving crRNA (tracrRNA), and iii) a crRNA where a ˜20-nucleotide (nt) portion of the 5′ end of crRNA (i.e. “guide sequence” or “spacer”) is complementary to a target nucleic acid.

In some embodiments, the tracrRNA and crRNA components of a Type II system can be replaced by a single-guide RNA (sgRNA). The sgRNA can include, for example, a nucleotide sequence that comprises an at least 12-20 nucleotide sequence complementary to the target DNA sequence (guide sequence) and can include a common scaffold RNA sequence at its 3′ end. As used herein, “a common scaffold RNA” refers to any RNA sequence that mimics the tracrRNA sequence or any RNA sequences that function as a tracrRNA.

Cas9 endonucleases produce blunt end DNA breaks, and are recruited to target DNA by a combination of a crRNA and a tracrRNA oligos, which tether the endonuclease via complementary hybridization of the RNA CRISPR complex. DNA recognition by the crRNA/endonuclease complex requires additional complementary base-pairing with a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) (e.g., 5′-NGG-3′) located in a 3′ portion of the target DNA, downstream from the target protospacer. (Jinek, M., et. al., Science. 2012:337; 816-821). In some embodiments, the PAM motif recognized by a Cas9 varies for different Cas9 proteins.

In some embodiments, one skilled in the art can appreciate that the Cas9 disclosed herein can be any variant described in the literature, including but not limited to the functional mutations described in: Fonfara et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 2014 February; 42(4):2577-90; Nishimasu H. et al. Cell. 2014 Feb. 27; 156(5):935-49; Jinek M. et al. Science. 2012 337:816-21; and Jinek M. et al. Science. 2014 Mar. 14; 343(6176); see also U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/842,859 filed Mar. 15, 2013, which is hereby incorporated by reference; further, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,697,359; 8,771,945; 8,795,965; 8,865,406; 8,871,445; 8,889,356; 8,895,308; 8,906,616; 8,932,814; 8,945,839; 8,993,233; and 8,999,641, which are all hereby incorporated by reference. Thus, in some embodiments, the systems and methods disclosed herein can be used with the wild type Cas9 protein having double-stranded nuclease activity, Cas9 mutants that act as single stranded nickases, deactivated Cas9 (dCas9) that has no nuclease activity, or other mutants with modified nuclease activity.

In some examples, a Type II nuclease may be catalytically dead (e.g. dCas9, “dead Cas9,” “deactivated Cas9”) such that it binds to a target sequence, but does not cleave.

In some embodiments, minicell production results from the disruption of the Min division system. This can be done with overexpression of FtsZ in a plasmid based system like described above, or by stopping expression of a gene within the Min system. Stopping expression of gene can be done by removing the gene (non-inducible minicell formation) or it can be done by knocking down the gene. Knocking down the gene allows for controllable repression or expression of the gene of interest. In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches to integrate a dCAS9 gene within a non-essential operon within the E. coli genome. dCAS9 is a variant of the CAS9 protein (CRISPR) that has had its active site altered to no longer be able to edit genomes, but can still bind to highly specific segments of the genome using a guide RNA. This protein can stop transcription of the gene if bound.

In some embodiments, the dCAS9 gene can be placed under inducible control so that its expression would be controlled. The guide RNA corresponding to the knockout within the Min system could be included on a plasmid or cut into the genome and placed under inducible control. Upon induction with this system, the guide RNA would direct the dCAS9 protein to the gene within the Min system in order to stop its expression. The stopping of expression of this gene such as minC, minD, and minC/D would result in the formation of minicells.

Antibiotic Resistance Knock in-Knock Out

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches uses of the genetic manipulation technique using Lambda-Red recombination system in order to edit genome integrated with exogenous expression cassette such as an selectable marker such as antibiotic resistant gene. In some embodiments, an selectable marker such as antibiotic resistant gene is integrated into the host genome (e.g. bacteria) in order to knockout minC/D/CD gene for inducing minicell production. If the marker with antibiotic resistance is no longer desired after successfully selecting the minicells in which the target gene (such as minC/D/CD) is knocked out, the flippase can be used to remove the integrated antibiotic resistant gene cassette from the host genome. A fragment of linear DNA is inserted into the genome directed by that fragment homology to the genome. This can be used to knock in genes of interest or to knockout genes of interest by replacing them with an antibiotic resistance cassette such as Chloramphenicol-resistant gene, kanamycin-resistant gene, spectinomycin-resistant gene, streptomycin-resistant gene, ampicillin-resistant gene, tetracycline-resistant gene, erythromycin-resistant gene, bleomycin-resistant gene, and bleomycin-resistant gene. A successful genetic manipulation is then selected for using this antibiotic resistance cassette. If a flippase recombination target (FRT) site is included within the resistance cassette for further genetic manipulations, it can be used for removing the antibiotic resistant gene integrated into the genome in vivo after selection of target minicells. The enzyme used for this is recombinase flippase and is often expressed from a plasmid that can be removed from the cell line using a temperature sensitive origin of replication. Recombinase flippase recognizes two identical FRT sites on both the 5′ and 3′ ends of the antibiotic resistance cassette and removes the DNA between the two sites. In some embodiments, the FRT site can be included within an antibiotic resistance cassette to remove the antibiotic resistance cassette after its use.

Strains for Minicell Production

A E. coli P678-54 strain is obtained from Coli Genetic Stock Center (CGSC), and is used to produce minicells (Adler et al., 1967, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 57:321-326; Inselburg J, 1970 J. Bacteriol. 102(3):642-647; Frazer 1975, Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 69:1-84).

Protease-Deficient Bacterial Strains

The present disclosure provides the production of minicells from B strains using genetically-engineering techniques including B strains including BL21, BL21 (DE3), and BL21-AI are deficient in Lon protease (cytoplasm) and OmpT protease (outer membrane). Accordingly, B strains as protease-deficient strains can be utilized to create protease-deficient and/or protease-deficient minicells. The DE3 designation means that respective strains contain the λDE3 lysogen that carries the gene for T7 RNA polymerase under control of the lacUV5 promoter. IPTG is required to maximally induce expression of the T7 RNA polymerase in order to express recombinant genes cloned downstream of a T7 promoter. BL21(DE3) is suitable for expression from a T7 or T7-lac promoter or promoters recognized by the E. coli RNA polymerase: e.g. lac, tac, trc, ParaBAD, PrhaBAD and also the T5 promoter. The genotype of BL21 (DE3) is: fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λ sBamHIo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI:PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i21 Δnin5.

BL21-AI E. coli contains a chromosomal insertion of the gene encoding T7 RNA polymerase (RNAP) into the araB locus of the araBAD operon, placing regulation of T7 RNAP under the control of the arabinose-inducible araBAD promoter. Therefore, this strain is especially useful for the expression of genes that may be toxic to other BL21 strains where basal expression of T7 RNAP is leaky. The BL21-AI strain does not contain the Ion protease and is deficient in the outer membrane protease, OmpT. The genotype of BL21-AI is F⁻ompT hsdS_(B) (r_(B) ⁻ m_(B) ⁻) gal dcm araB::T7RNAP-tetA. The BL21-AI has an arabinose promoter that controls the production T7 RNA Polymerase, while the BL21 (DE3) has a lac promoter that controls the production of the T7 RNA Polymerase. This is significant because the lac promotion system is leaky. Therefore, the BL21-AI protein production is more tightly regulated due to the arabinose promotion system.

The present disclosure teaches that LPS (Lipopolysaccharide) modified BL21 (DE3) cells can be used. The LPS of the E. Coli is modified to be significantly less toxic. This LPS modified BL21 (DE3) cells if necessary. This could also be branched out to other gram-negative bacterial cells. Safe usage of gram-negative cells can be beneficial for anucleated cell-based platform.

ClearColi® BL21(DE3) cells are the commercially available competent cells with a modified LPS (Lipid IVA) that does not trigger the endotoxic response in diverse cells. For example, ClearColi cells lack outer membrane agonists for hTLR4/MD-2 activation; therefore, activation of hTLR4/MD-2 signaling by ClearColi® is several orders of magnitude lower as compared with E. coli wild-type cells. Heterologous proteins prepared from ClearColi® are virtually free of endotoxic activity. After minimal purification from ClearColi cells, proteins or plasmids (which may contain Lipid IVA) can be used in most applications without eliciting an endotoxic response in human cells. In ClearColi cells, two of the secondary acyl chains of the normally hexa-acylated LPS have been deleted, eliminating a key determinant of endotoxicity in eukaryotic cells. The six acyl chains of the LPS are the trigger which is recognized by the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in complex with myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD-2), causing activation of NF-κB and production of proinflammatory cytokines. The deletion of the two secondary acyl chains results in lipid IVA, which does not induce the formation of the activated heterotetrameric TLR4/MD-2 complex and thus does not trigger the endotoxic response. In ClearColi® BL21(DE3) Electrocompetent Cells 4 MA145 Rev. 31 Oct. 2016 addition, the oligosaccharide chain is deleted, making it easier to remove the resulting lipid IVA from any downstream product.

In some embodiments, protease-deficient minicells disclosed herein are produced from protease-deficient parental strains including, but are not limited to, BL21 (DE3), BL21-AI and LPS-modified BL21 (DE3). In other embodiments, BL21 (DE3), BL21-AI and LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) strains are genetically engineered by deleting, mutating, knocking out, or disrupting minC, minD, and/or minC and minD gene(s) to induce minicell production. In other embodiments, BL21 (DE3), BL21-AI and LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) strains are genetically engineered by overexpressing ftsZ and/or minE genes to induce minicell production.

In further embodiments, the present disclosure provides a new minicell-producing strain named as B8. This strain is the protease-deficient minicell-producing strain without the T7 RNA Polymerase. This minicell strain is produced from the BL21 (DE3) strain. While knocking out minC/D/CD, the T7 RNA Polymerase was silenced due to the homology of the introduced knockout via Lambda Red Transformation. This strain can be used for a need of a protease-deficient minicell, but not having the T7 RNA Polymerase. In some embodiments, minicells displayed an enzymatically active polypeptide such as complicated or toxic proteins on their surface, need to be more controlled and slower expression of the desired but complicated or toxic proteins.

The present disclosure teaches genotypes of newly-generated protease-deficient minicell strains comprising i) minC-deleted BL21(DE3); fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λ sBamHIo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i21 Δnin5 ΔminC, ii) minD-deleted BL21(DE3); fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λ sBamHIo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i21 Δnin5 ΔminD, iii) minC/D-deleted BL21(DE3); fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λ sBamHIo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i21 Δnin5 ΔminC ΔminD; iv) minC-deleted BL21-AI; F⁻ompT hsdS_(B) (r_(B) ⁻ m_(B) ⁻) gal dcm araB::T7RNAP-tetA ΔminC,v) minD-deleted BL21-AI; F⁻ompT hsdS_(B) (r_(B) ⁻ m_(B) ⁻) gal dcm araB::T7RNAP-tetA ΔminD, vi) minC/D-deleted BL21-AI; F⁻ompT hsdS_(B) (r_(B) ⁻ m_(B) ⁻) gal dcm araB::T7RNAP-tetA ΔminC ΔminD; vii) minC-deleted LPS-modified BL21(DE3); msbA148 ΔgutQ ΔkdsD ΔlpxL ΔlpxM ΔpagP ΔlpxP ΔeptA ΔminC, viii) minD-deleted LPS-modified BL21(DE3); msbA148 ΔgutQ ΔkdsD ΔlpxL ΔlpxM ΔpagP ΔlpxP ΔeptA ΔminD, ix) minC/D-deleted LPS-modified BL21(DE3); msbA148 ΔgutQ ΔkdsD ΔlpxL ΔlpxM ΔpagP ΔlpxP ΔeptA ΔminC, ΔminD, x) minC-deleted B8 with suppression on T7 RNA polymerase activity; fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λ sBamHIo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i21 Δnin5 ΔminC; xi) minD-deleted B8 with suppression on T7 RNA polymerase activity; fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λ sBamHIo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i21 Δnin5 ΔminD; and xii) minC/D-deleted B8 with suppression on T7 RNA polymerase activity; fhuA2 [lon] ompT gal (λ DE3) [dcm] ΔhsdS λ DE3=λ sBamHIo ΔEcoRI-B int::(lacI::PlacUV5::T7 gene1) i21 Δnin5 ΔminC ΔminD.

Minicells that have segregated from parent cells lack chromosomal and/or nuclear components, but retain the cytoplasm and its contents, including the cellular machinery required for protein expression. In some embodiments, minicells are protease-deficient because the parent cells are protease-deficient strains. Although chromosomes do not segregate into minicells, extrachromosomal and/or episomal genetic expression elements may segregate, or may be introduced into minicells after segregation from parent cells. In some embodiments, the disclosure is drawn to protease-deficient minicells comprising an expression element, which may be an inducible expression element. The inducible expression element such as an inducible promoter can be introduced to a recombinant plasmid used for homologous recombination to knock out and/or delete gene(s) involved to cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning such as minC, minD, and minC/D, a recombinant expression vector to overexpress gene(s) involved to cell division and/or chromosomal partitioning such as ftsZ and minE, and a recombinant expression vector for expressing an enzymatically active polypeptide including a protein of interest disclosed herein. In further embodiments, the inducible expression element comprises expression sequences operably linked to an open reading frame (ORF) that encodes proteins of interest disclosed herein. Optionally, at any point in the method, an inducing agent is provided in order to induce expression of an ORF that encodes proteins of interest disclosed herein.

In some embodiments, the disclosure teaches methods of making a protease-deficient bacterial minicell comprising a recombinant fusion protein that is not naturally found in parental cells. In some embodiment, the disclosure teaches method of preparing protease-deficient minicells from the host cells.

In other embodiments, the present disclosure teaches production of protease-deficient minicells from B. subtilis strains such as CU403 DIVIVA, CU403,DIVIVB,SPO-, CU403,DIVIVB and CU403,DIVIVB1 using by deleting, mutating, knocking out, or disrupting gene encoding WprA protease. FIG. 18 illustrate an exemplary recombinant vector for this purpose of suppressing and/or removing WprA protease activity to make protease-deficient condition in B. subtilis.

B. subtilis genetic manipulations work slightly differently than genetic manipulations in E. coli. B. subtilis is known to readily undergo homologous recombination if DNA containing homology to the existing genome is inserted. This is unlike E. coli; E. coli has mechanisms in place to degrade any non-natural linear DNA present. This difference can be utilized in order to knockout genes by designing an antibiotic resistance cassette flanked by homologous arms which correspond to the start and end of the gene that is desired to be knockout out.

The present disclosure provides the production of minicells from B. subtilis using genetically-engineering techniques. In some embodiments, B. subtilis strains including, but are not limited to CU403 DIVIVA (BGSC No. 1A196), CU403,DIVIVB,SPO- (BGSC No. 1A197), CU403,DIVIVB (BGSC No. 1A292), CU403,DIVIVB1 (BGSC No. 1A513), KO7 can be used as parental bacterial cells to produce minicells. B. subtilis strains are the commercially available and can be obtained from Bacillus Genetic Stock Center (BGSC). The catalog of strains is available on the document provided by publicly accessible BGSC webpage (www.bgsc.org/_catalogs/Catpart1.pdf).

In some embodiments, Bacillus Subtilis stains including, but are not limited to CU403 DIVIVA, CU403,DIVIVB,SPO-, CU403,DIVIVB and CU403,DIVIVB1 can be genetically modified by knocking out gene encoding WprA Protease in these strains. WprA protease is known as one of the harshest proteases.

In order to knock out, delete, and or remove WprA-encoding gene from B. subtilis strains, the pUC18 WprA-CamR vector is used as illustrated in FIG. 18. This vector has the homologous arms corresponding to the gene coding for WprA cell wall protease that naturally occurs in B. subtilis which is undesirable for protein surface expression. These homologous arms flank a chloramphenicol resistance cassette in order to allow for selection. After the homologous recombination via the homologous arms within the host cells, the WprA-encoding nucleotide except the homologous arm is replaced with the chloramphenicol selection marker gene. This plasmid can replicate within E. coli due to its origin of replication, thus when transformed into B. subtilis it cannot replicate. After transformation, colonies are selected for using chloramphenicol in order to isolate the colonies in which the knockout of WprA successfully occurs. Because the plasmid cannot replicate in B. subtilis, only the cells can survive against the presence of chloramphenicol if the recombinant cassette having the chloramphenicol resistant marker gene is integrated to the genome of the B. subtilis cell by homologous recombination.

B. subtilis secretes no fewer than seven proteases during vegetative growth and stationary phase. Strains in which multiple protease genes have been inactivated have proved to be superior to wild type strains in production of foreign proteins. The KO7 is prototrophic, free of secreted proteases, and have marker-free deletions in PY79 genetic background. This KO7 is available from the BGSC as accession number 1A1133. KO7 Genotype: ΔnprE ΔaprE Δepr Δmpr ΔnprB Δvpr Δbpr

In some embodiments, a seven-protease deletion strain, B. subtilis KO7, can be used for B. subtilis minicell production by knocking out DIV-IVA and DIV-IVB using genetic engineering techniques described in the present disclosure.

Minicell Separation and Purification

A variety of methods are used to separate minicells from parent cells (i.e., the cells from which the minicells are produced) in a mixture of parent cells and minicells. In general, such methods are physical, biochemical and genetic, and can be used in combination.

Physical Separation of Minicells from Parent Cells

By way of non-limiting example, minicells are separated from parent cells glass-fiber filtration (Christen et al., Gene 23:195-198, 1983), and differential and zonal centrifugation (Barker et al., J. Gen. Microbiol. 111:387-396, 1979), size-exclusion chromatography, e.g. gel-filtration, differential sonication (Reeve, J. N., and N. H. Mendelson. 1973. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 53:1325-1330), and UV-irradiation (Tankersley, W. G., and J. M. Woodward. 1973. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1974 March; 145(3):802-805).

Some techniques involve different centrifugation techniques, e.g., differential and zonal centrifugation. By way of non-limiting example, minicells may be purified by the double sucrose gradient purification technique described by Frazer and Curtiss, Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 69:1-84, 1975. The first centrifugation involves differential centrifugation, which separates parent cells from minicells based on differences in size and/or density. The percent of sucrose in the gradient (graduated from about 5 to about 20%), Ficol or glycerol is designed to allow only parent cells to pass through the gradient.

The supernatant, which is enriched for minicells, is then separated from the pellet and is spun at a much higher rate (e.g., ≥11,000 g). This pellets the minicells and any parent cells that did not pellet out in the first spin. The pellet is then resuspended and layered on a sucrose gradient.

The band containing minicells is collected, pelleted by centrifugation, and loaded on another gradient. This procedure is repeated until the minicell preparation is essentially depleted of parent cells, or has a concentration of parent cells that is low enough so as to not interfere with a chosen minicell application or activity. By way of non-limiting example, buffers and media used in these gradient and resuspension steps may be LB, defined minimal media, e.g. M63 salts with defined carbon, nitrogen, phosphate, magnesium, and sulfate levels, complex minimal media, e.g. defined minimal media with casamino acid supplement, and/or other buffer or media that serves as an osmo-protectant, stabilizing agent, and/or energy source, or may contain agents that limit the growth of contaminating parental cells, e.g azide, antibiotic, or lack an auxotrophic supplemental requirement, e.g. thiamine.

Other physical methods may also be used to remove parent cells from minicell preparations. By way of non-limiting example, mixtures of parent cells and minicells are frozen to −20° C. and then thawed slowly (Frazer and Curtiss, Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 69:1-84, 1975).

Biochemical Separation of Minicells from Parent Cells

Contaminating parental cells may be eliminated from minicell preparations by incubation in the presence of an agent, or under a set of conditions, that selectively kills dividing cells. Because minicells can neither grow nor divide, they are resistant to such treatments.

Examples of biochemical conditions that prevent or kill dividing parental cells is treatment with an antibacterial agent, such as penicillin or derivatives of penicillin. Penicillin has two potential affects. First, penicillin prevent cell wall formation and leads to lysis of dividing cells. Second, prior to lysis dividing cells form filaments that may assist in the physical separation steps described above. In addition to penicillin and its derivatives, other agents may be used to prevent division of parental cells. Such agents may include azide. Azide is a reversible inhibitor of electron transport, and thus prevents cell division. As another example, D-cycloserine or phage MS2 lysis protein may also serve as a biochemical approach to eliminate or inhibit dividing parental cells. (Markiewicz et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 70:119-123, 1992). Khachatourians (U.S. Pat. No. 4,311,797) states that it may be desirable to incubate minicell/parent cell mixtures in brain heart infusion broth at 36° C. to 38° C. prior to the addition of penicillin G and further incubations.

Genetic Separation of Minicells from Parent Cells

Alternatively or additionally, various techniques may be used to selectively kill, preferably lyse, parent cells. For example, although minicells can internally retain M13 phage in the plasmid stage of the M13 life cycle, they are refractory to infection and lysis by M13 phage (Staudenbauer et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 138:203-212, 1975). In contrast, parent cells are infected and lysed by M13 and are thus are selectively removed from a mixture comprising parent cells and minicells. A mixture comprising parent cells and minicells is treated with M13 phage at an M.O.I.=5 (phage cells). The infection is allowed to continue to a point where ≥50% of the parent cells are lysed, preferably ≥75%, more preferably ≥95% most preferably ≥99%; and ≤25% of the minicells are lysed or killed, preferably ≤15%, most preferably ≤1%.

As another non-limiting example of a method by which parent cells can be selectively killed, and preferably lysed, a chromosome of a parent cell may include a conditionally lethal gene. The induction of the chromosomal lethal gene will result in the destruction of parent cells, but will not affect minicells as they lack the chromosome harboring the conditionally lethal gene. As one example, a parent cell may contain a chromosomal integrated bacteriophage comprising a conditionally lethal gene. One example of such a bacteriophage is an integrated lambda phage that has a temperature sensitive repressor gene (e.g., lambda cI857). Induction of this phage, which results in the destruction of the parent cells but not of the achromosomal minicells, is achieved by simply raising the temperature of the growth media. A preferred bacteriophage to be used in this method is one that kills and/or lyses the parent cells but does not produce infective particles. One non-limiting example of this type of phage is one that lyses a cell but which has been engineered to as to not produce capsid proteins that are surround and protect phage DNA in infective particles. That is, capsid proteins are required for the production of infective particles.

As another non-limiting example of a method by which parent cells can be selectively killed or lysed, toxic proteins may be expressed that lead to parental cell lysis. By way of non-limiting example, these inducible constructs may employ a system to control the expression of a phage holing gene. Holin genes fall with in at least 35 different families with no detectable orthologous relationships (Grundling, A., et al. 2001. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 98:9348-9352) of which each and any may be used to lyse parental cells to improve the purity of minicell preparations.

In some embodiments, minicells are substantially separated from the minicell-producing parent cells in a composition comprising minicells. After separation, the compositions comprising the minicells is at least about 99.9%, about 99.8%, about 99.7%, about 99.6%, about 99.5%, about 99.4%, about 99.3%, about 99.2%, about 99.1%, about 99%, about 98%, about 97%, about 96%, about 95%, about 94%, about 93%, about 92%, about 91%, about 90%, about 89%, about 88%, about 87%, about 86%, about 85%, about 84%, about 83%, about 82%, about 81%, about 80%, about 79%, about 78%, about 77%, about 76%, about 75%, about 74%, about 73%, about 72%, about 71%, about 70%, about 65%, about 60%, about 55%, about 50%, about 45%, about 40%, about 35%, about 30%, about 25% or about 20% free of minicell-producing parent cells. Thus, the compositions of the disclosure can comprise minicells that are substantially free of the parental cell.

In some aspects, the present invention provides a method for making minicells, the method comprising (a) culturing a minicell-producing parent cell, wherein the parent cell comprises an recombinant construct, wherein the recombinant construct comprises a nucleotide sequence homologous to a target gene associated with regulating cell division, and (b) separating the minicells from the parent cell, thereby generating a composition comprising minicells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises (c) purifying the minicells from the composition by centrifugation and/or filtration. In some embodiments, one or more additional expression constructs can be introduced into the minicell-producing parent cell which comprise genes associated with cell division. In such instances, the expression constructs may be simultaneously or sequentially introduced into the parent cell prior to induction for minicell formation, and can comprise one or more selection markers (e.g., antibiotic resistance genes) and/or reporter genes to allow for selection and/or visualization of minicells expressing the protein(s) of interest. In other embodiments, the expression construct can express one or more additional proteins, which are driven by the same or different promoters, including inducible promoters. In further embodiments, genes associated with cell division are minC, minD, and/or both minC and minD.

Eubacterial cells and minicells are bounded by an inner membrane, which is surrounded by a cell wall, wherein the cell wall is itself enclosed within an outer membrane. That is, proceeding from the external environment to the cytoplasm of a minicell, a molecule first encounters the outer membrane (OM), then the cell wall and finally, the inner membrane (IM).

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches disruption or degradation of the OM, cell wall or IM of a eubacterial minicell. Such treatments are used, by way of non-limiting example, in order to increase or decrease the immunogenicity, and/or to alter the permeability characteristics, of a minicell.

In some embodiments, minicells are (i) fully intact, (ii) protoplasts (outer membrane and cell wall removed) or, (iii) poroplasts (outer membrane removed or permeabilized) in which surface-expressing moieties such as membrane-associated protein, transmembrane protein/domain, and linker protein/domain are found. In some embodiments, the surface-expressing moieties can be fused to enzymatically active polypeptides including, but are not limited to lipases, phospholipases, transacylases, transaminases, pectinase, proteases, amylases, cellulases, cutinases, esterases, acylases, invertases, isomerases, lyases, glucosidases, oxidoreductases, transferases, ligases, and amidases, displayed on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate cells. In other embodiments, enzymatically active polypeptides comprise lipase, glucose isomerase, alpha amylase, cellulase (endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases), beta amylase, pectin lyase, isomerase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenases (e.g. alcohol dehydrogenases, lactate dehydrogenases, acetaldehyde dehydrogenases, aldehyde dehydrogenases, pyruvate dehydrogenases, and succinate dehydrogenases), xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase. Also, enzymatically active polypeptides further comprise amyloglucosidase, pullulanase, cyclodextrin-glycosyltransferase, pectin methyl esterase, glucose oxidase, lactase, beta-glucanase, acetolactate decarboxylase, pectate lyase, nitrilase, and amyloglucosidase. In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide is lipase. In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide is glucose isomerase.

Eubacterial cells and minicells with altered membranes and/or cell walls are called “poroplasts” “spheroplasts,” and “protoplasts.” Herein, the terms “spheroplast” and “protoplast” refer to spheroplasts and protoplasts prepared from minicells. In contrast, “cellular spheroplasts” and “cellular protoplasts” refer to spheroplasts and protoplasts prepared from cells. Also, as used herein, the term “minicell” encompasses not only minicells per se but also encompasses poroplast, spheroplasts and protoplasts.

In a poroplast, the eubacterial outer membrane (OM) and LPS have been removed. In a spheroplast, portions of a disrupted eubacterial OM and/or disrupted cell wall either may remain associated with the inner membrane of the minicell, but the membrane and cell wall is nonetheless porous because the permeability of the disrupted OM and cell wall has been increased. A membrane is said to be “disrupted” when the membrane's structure has been treated with an agent, or incubated under conditions, that leads to the partial degradation of the membrane, thereby increasing the permeability thereof. In contrast, a membrane that has been “degraded” is essentially, for the applicable intents and purposes, removed. In preferred embodiments, irrespective of the condition of the OM and cell wall, the eubacterial inner membrane is not disrupted, and membrane proteins displayed on the inner membrane are accessible to compounds that are brought into contact with the minicell, poroplast, spheroplast, protoplast or cellular poroplast, as the case may be.

Enzyme Immobilization

A variety of enzyme immobilization techniques have been developed to improve the efficiency of enzymes. The process of immobilizing enzymes began in 1916 with the invertase being immobilized on aluminum hydroxide (Fersht A. Structure and mechanism in protein science: a guide to enzyme catalysis and protein folding. New York: W. H. Freeman & Company; 1998. p. 615; Powers R. Struct Funct Bioinf. 2006; 65:124-35.) Since then, enzyme immobilization techniques have been advanced in many ways. Enzyme immobilization adds various valuable properties to enzymes. It improves the stability, reusability, storage time, recovery, and range of activities in the presence of various physical and chemical factors.

In the early phase of enzyme immobilization, invertases was reversibly immobilized on aluminum hydroxide through a physical adsorption method. This laid the groundwork for enzyme immobilization (Nelson J M et al., Hitchcock D I. 1921, J Am Chem Soc. 43:1956-61). From 1940 to 1965, the physical adsorption method was transitioned to adsorption based on ionic adsorption to various organic, synthetic, and inorganic materials. There were also many unsuccessful attempts at immobilizing enzymes through covalent methods at this time (Mclaren A D. 1957, Science. 125:697. By 1970, the covalent method of immobilizing enzymes had been successfully completed with various chemical cross-linkers and acrylamide polymers (Mosbach K et al. 1966, Acta Chem Scand. 20:2807-10) By 1980, the basis for enzyme immobilization methods in covalent bonding, adsorption, entrapment, and encapsulation had been developed. Affinity binding and coordination binding on novel matrices arose in this decade. This was also the decade where a multi-enzyme system was immobilized rather than a single enzyme (Chen L F et al. 1974 Pharmacol Res Commun. 6:273-80; Kennedy J F et al. 1975, Carbohydr Res. 41:227-33; Cordonnier M et al. 1975, FEBS Lett. 59:263-7; Sin M L et al. 2014 Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 14:225-44; Horton H R et al. 1976, Methods Enzymol. 44:516-26). During this time, designing immobilized enzymes with very high selectivity and specificity were tried to replace most chemical-based processes. Discoveries in the structure and specificity of immobilized enzymes led to breakthroughs in various industries including pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and industry.

From the 1990s to present day, research has been heavily focused on developing advanced immobilization techniques. The goal has been to create immobilized enzymes that have similar catalytic ability to that of soluble enzymes but with higher operational stability. Cross-linked enzyme crystals and cross-linked enzyme aggregates have showed that enzyme immobilization is possible in the absence of a carrier. The development of nano-structured materials and the use of computer modeling have significantly improved the processes involved with enzyme immobilization. Currently, there are two overarching methods involved in immobilizing enzymes: physical methods and chemical methods. Physical methods include: entrapment, adsorption, and microencapsulation. Chemical methods include covalent attachment, cross-linking, ionic binding, and conjugation by affinity ligands.

Entrapment involves the cross linking of enzymes to a polymer, allowing the permeation of substrates and release of product molecules (Das N et al. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. 1998; 27:25-9; Nakarani M et al. Orient Pharm Exp Med. 2007; 7:79-84.) Adsorption involves attaching enzymes to support materials through ionic or hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces (Alloue W A et al. 2008 Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 150:51-63. Hage D S et al. 1986 Anal Chem. 58:274-9; Marquez L D S et al. 2008 J Mol Catal B: Enzym. 51:86-92). Microencapsulation involves enclosing enzymes within spherical, semi-permeable polymer membranes with controlled porosity (Iso M et al. 1989, J Microencapsul. 6:165-76; Iso M et al. 1985, J Microencapsul. 2:275-87; Mauguet M C et al. 2002, J Microencapsul. 19:377-384).

Covalent attachment involves attaching enzymes by means of covalent bonds, including diazotization, amino bond, Schiff's base formation, amidation reactions, thiol-disulfide, peptide bond and alkylation reactions (Kayastha A M et al. 2003, J Bioact Compat Polym. 18; 113-124) Cross-linking involves covalently bonding multiple enzymes together to then bond to a matrix (Dwevedi A et al. 2009, Bioresour Technol. 100:2667-75). Ionic binding involves immobilizing enzymes to a charged matrix through a method similar to physical adsorption (Kayastha A M et al. 2001, 96:41-53). Conjugation by affinity ligands involves attaching an enzyme to a matrix using specific ligands, such as artificially adding a histidine tag or utilizing the existing ligands on the unmodified enzyme (DeLouise L A. et al. 2005 Anal Chem. 77:1950-1956; Reddy K R C et al. 2005, Anal Chem. 77:5063-7).

The present disclosure teaches enzyme immobilization by covalent attachment via self assembly, rather than synthetic force. Self-assembly is the process by which an organized structure spontaneously forms from individual components, as a result of specific, local interactions among the components. When the constitutive components are molecules, the process is termed molecular self-assembly as described in the following webpage (www.nature.com/subjects/self-assembly). In some embodiments, a self assembling enzyme immobilization process where the enzyme is secreted and attached to the outer membrane of the minicell in one step has been developed for standardized enzyme purification and efficacious enzyme delivery. Self-assembly is achieved through the means of targeted linker proteins and signaling sequences. These linker proteins and signaling sequences guide the expressed protein of interest to bind to the surface of the cell, exposing the expressed protein of interest to the exterior of the cell membrane.

Enzyme

In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide comprises a fusion protein. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises at least one surface-expressing moiety, and at least one enzyme moiety.

Enzymatically active polypeptides that are within the scope of the present disclosure include, but are not limited to, enzymes/enzyme moieties such as lipases, phospholipases, transacylases, transaminases, pectinase, proteases, amylases, cellulases, cutinases, esterases, acylases, invertases, isomerases, lyases, glucosidases, oxidoreductases, transferases, ligases, and amidases. In some embodiments, the enzymes/enzyme moieties comprise lipase, glucose isomerase, alpha amylase, cellulase (endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases), beta amylase, pectin lyase, isomerase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenases (e.g. alcohol dehydrogenases, lactate dehydrogenases, acetaldehyde dehydrogenases, aldehyde dehydrogenases, pyruvate dehydrogenases, and succinate dehydrogenases), xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase. Also, in other embodiments, enzymes/enzyme moieties further comprise amyloglucosidase, pullulanase, cyclodextrin-glycosyltransferase, pectin methyl esterase, glucose oxidase, lactase, beta-glucanase, acetolactate decarboxylase, pectate lyase, nitrilase, and amyloglucosidase. In some embodiments, the enzymes/enzyme moieties is lipase. In some embodiments, the enzymes/enzyme moieties is glucose isomerase.

In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide displayed by the minicells of the invention comprises a lipase. Exemplary lipase that is within the scope of the disclosure include, but are not limited to sequences corresponding to Genbank Accession No. AY787835.2. In some embodiments, the enzyme/enzyme moieties described above is fused to surface-expressing moiety. In other embodiments, the lipase is fused to surface-expressing moiety.

In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide displayed by the minicells of the invention comprises a glucose isomerase. Molecular and industrial aspects of glucose isomerase is reported by Bhosale S H et al 1996, Microbiological reviews, p 280-300, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. In some embodiments, the enzyme/enzyme moieties described above is fused to surface-expressing moiety. In other embodiments, the glucose isomerase is fused to surface-expressing moiety and is displayed on the surface of the minicells.

Binding Domain for Cell Adhesion

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell-based platform described herewith express binding domains. These domains allow for better retention of the minicells on plant surfaces, which prevents runoff or drift of agrochemicals encapsulated within the minicells. They can also improve adhesion to the targeted pests to ensure the administration of an effective dose of the agrochemicals. Once the minicells are on the plant, the chemical will slowly release into the environment.

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell described herewith expresses a fusion protein, which comprises at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety. The plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a carbohydrate binding module comprising a carbohydrate binding module selected from the group consisting of: a cellulose binding domain, a xylan binding domain, a chitin binding domain, and a lignin binding domain.

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell expresses a polypeptide on its surface that increases adhesion to a plant surface. The polypeptide is a plant adhesion polypeptide on its surface. In some embodiments, the polypeptide is a carbohydrate binding module that is displayed on its surface. In other embodiments, the polypeptide is a carbohydrate binding module that is displayed on its surface.

A carbohydrate-binding module (CBM) is a protein domain found in carbohydrate-active enzymes (for example glycoside hydrolases). The majority of these domains have carbohydrate-binding activity. Some of these domains are found on cellulosomal scaffoldin proteins. CBMs are also known as cellulose-binding domains. CBMs are classified into numerous families, based on amino acid sequence similarity. CBMs of microbial glycoside hydrolases play a central role in the recycling of photosynthetically fixed carbon through their binding to specific plant structural polysaccharides. CBMs can recognize both crystalline and amorphous cellulose forms. CBMs are the most common non-catalytic modules associated with enzymes active in plant cell-wall hydrolysis. Many putative CBMs have been identified by amino acid sequence alignments but only a few representatives have been shown experimentally to have a carbohydrate-binding function. By binding to polysaccharides, CBMs bring appended catalytic domains into intimate contact with target substrates and thus potentiate catalysis. CBMs with the capacity to bind cellulose are associated with enzymes that hydrolyze both cellulose and other cell wall polymers such as xylan, mannan, pectin, and noncellulosic β-glucans.

Cellulose binding domains (CBDs) have been described as useful agents for attachment of molecular species to cellulose (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,738,984 and 6,124,117). Indeed, as cotton is made up of 90% cellulose, CBDs have proved useful for delivery of so called “benefit agents” onto cotton fabrics, as is disclosed in WO9800500 where direct fusions between a CBD and an enzyme were used utilizing the affinity of the CBD to bind to cotton fabric. The use of similar multifunctional fusion proteins for delivery of encapsulated benefit agents was claimed in WO03031477, wherein the multifunctional fusion proteins consist of a first binding domain which is a cellulose binding domain and a second binding domain, wherein either the first binding domain or the second binding domain can bind to a microparticle. WO03031477 is exemplified using a bifunctional fusion protein consisting of a CBD and an anti-RR6 antibody fragment binding to a microparticle, which complex is deposited onto cotton treads or cut grass.

In some embodiments, the enzymatically active polypeptide displayed by the minicells of the invention comprises a CBM. Exemplary CBM from Cellulomonas fimi that is within the scope of the disclosure is used. In some embodiments, the cell adhesion moiety is fused to surface-expressing moiety. In other embodiments, the CBM is fused to surface-expressing moiety and is displayed on the surface of the minicells.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides the genetic engineering techniques to make minicell-based platform with binding domains/motifs that functionalize the surface of the minicell. Proteins including specific binding domains and/or motifs are expressed on the surface of the minicells and specifically target binding sites that are present on the surface of plants or pests.

In some embodiments, minicell-based platform can be functionalized by proteins with carbohydrate binding modules (CBMs) that can target and bind to carbohydrates such as cellulose, xylan, chitin, and lignin, which are important and ubiquitous structural components of plant cell walls. Because CBMs can recognize their binding site present on a subject such as a plant or a pest, the minicell-based platform comprising the functionalized binding domain allows for targeting with high specificity.

Surface Expression System

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches surface-expressing moiety that is fused to enzyme moiety. The surface-expressing moiety can be transmembrane protein and/or transmembrane domains that function as a linker protein to display the enzymatically active polypeptides having enzyme moiety on the surface of cells.

In some embodiments, surface-expressing moiety can be membrane-associated proteins including, but not limited to, transmembrane protein, membrane-anchoring protein, linker protein and/or domain thereof.

In some embodiments, the invention is drawn to display produced membrane-associated protein(s) fused to proteins of interest disclosed herein on the surface of the minicell. By way of non-limiting example, this structure may be an internally expressed membrane protein or chimeric construct to be inserted in or associated with the minicell membrane such that the extracellular domain or domain of interest is exposed on the outer surface of the minicell (expressed and displayed on the surface of the minicell or expressed in the parental cell to be displayed on the surface of the segregated minicell).

The displayed domain fused to a membrane-associated linker protein may be an enzymatic domain such as having lipases, phospholipases, transacylases, transaminases, pectinase, proteases, amylases, cellulases, cutinases, esterases, acylases, invertases, isomerases, lyases, glucosidases, oxidoreductases, transferases, ligases, and amidases activity. In other embodiments, the displayed domain fused to a membrane-associated linker protein may be an enzymatic domain such as having lipase, glucose isomerase, alpha amylase, cellulase (endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases), beta amylase, pectin lyase, isomerase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenases (e.g. alcohol dehydrogenases, lactate dehydrogenases, acetaldehyde dehydrogenases, aldehyde dehydrogenases, pyruvate dehydrogenases, and succinate dehydrogenases), xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase activity. In other embodiments, the displayed domain fused to a membrane-associated linker protein may be an enzymatic domain such as having amyloglucosidase, pullulanase, cyclodextrin-glycosyltransferase, pectin methyl esterase, glucose oxidase, lactase, beta-glucanase, acetolactate decarboxylase, pectate lyase, nitrilase, and amyloglucosidase activity. In some embodiments, the displayed domain fused to a membrane-associated linker protein may be an enzymatic domain such as having lipase activity. In some embodiments, the displayed domain fused to a membrane-associated linker protein may be an enzymatic domain such as having glucose isomerase activity.

Contacting such minicells with the appropriate substrate of the enzyme allows the substrate to be converted to reactant. When either the substrate or reactant is detectable, the reaction catalyzed by the membrane-bound enzyme may be quantified. In the latter instance, the minicells may be used to identify and isolate, from a pool of compounds, one or more compounds that inhibit or stimulate the activity of the enzyme represented by the displayed enzymatic moiety.

In some embodiments, the membrane-associated protein can be a fusion protein, i.e., a protein that comprises a first polypeptide having a first amino acid sequence and a second polypeptide having a second amino acid sequence, wherein the first and second amino acid sequences are not naturally present in the same polypeptide. At least one polypeptide in a membrane fusion protein is a “transmembrane protein/domain” “membrane-anchoring protein/domain” or “linker protein/domain”. The transmembrane and membrane-anchoring domains of a fusion protein may be selected from membrane proteins that naturally occur in a prokaryote such as bacteria, a eukaryote, such as a fungus, a unicellular eukaryote, a plant and an animal, such as a mammal including a human. Such domains may be from a viral membrane protein naturally found in a virus such as a bacteriophage or a eukaryotic virus, e.g., an adenovirus or a retrovirus. Such domains may be from a membrane protein naturally found in an archaebacterium such as a thermophile.

Exemplary surface-expressing moieties include but are not limited to ice nucleation protein (INP) Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein (BRK), Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence protein (AIDA) and/or an exported bacterial protein. “Exported bacterial proteins,” generally refers to bacterial proteins that are transported across the plasma membrane and function as an anchor for membrane proteins. Exemplary exported bacterial proteins encompassed by the present invention, include, but are not limited to LamB (GenBank Accession No. AMC96895), OprF (GenBank Accession No. NP_792118), OmpA (GenBank Accession No. AIZ93785), Lpp (GenBank Accession No. P69776), MalE (GenBank Accession No. P0AEX9), PhoA (GenBank Accession No. AIZ92470.1), Bla (GenBank Accession No. P62593), F1 or M13 major coat (J7I0P6—Uniprot No.), and F1 or M13 minor coat (P69168—Uniprot No.).

In some embodiments, for gram negative bacterial expression systems, enzymes of interest disclosed herein are immobilized to the surface of the minicells via wild type or mutant versions of the exported bacterial proteins such as LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), F1 or M13 minor coat (Gene III).

In other embodiments, a wild type and/or truncated version of the Ice Nucleation Protein (INP) can be used to immobilize enzymes on the surface of bacteria.

Surface Display System

Bacterial surface display technique enables the exogenous proteins or polypeptides displayed on the bacterial surface, while maintaining their relatively independent spatial structures and biological activities. The technique makes recombinant bacteria possess the expectant functions, subsequently, directly used for many applications. Many proteins could be used to achieve bacterial surface display, among them, autotransporter, a member of the type V secretion system of gram-negative bacteria, has been extensively studied because of its modular structure and apparent simplicity. However, autotransporter has not been widely used at present due to lack of a convenient genetic vector system.

The present disclosure teaches that autodisplay of an protein/polypeptide of interest requires an autotransporter protein in order to surface display a protein or peptide in a gram negative bacteria. The autotransporter proteins are broken down into 3 different subgroups, classical autotransporters (type Va), trimeric autotransporters adhesins (type Vb), and two partner secretion systems (type Vc).

Classic autotransporters (type Va) are thought to all share a common general structure which consists of a N-terminus signal peptide fused to the passenger protein that takes place of autotransport precursor protein, which provides transport across the cytoplasmic membrane. The N-terminus signal peptide normally utilizes the Secretion machinery in order to provide transport. This signal peptide is cleaved once the protein crosses the inner membrane. Outer membrane translocation is facilitated by the C-terminal domain of the autotransporter. This domain, known as the translocator domain, forms a β-barrel within the outer membrane. This autotransporter requires an additional linker domain due to the β-strand that closes barrel is directed towards the periplasm. Over 30 different proteins have been expressed as the passenger protein using this mechanism.

The trimeric autotransporters (type Vb) are similar to the classical autotransporters except that they cannot transport just one protein to the surface, they transport 3 (trimeric) proteins to the surface.

Type Vc autotransporters consist of a passenger and translocation domain, however both domains are expressed in separate genes. Both domains are transported across the inner membrane by the Secretion machinery, but interact with the periplasm via the polypeptide transport associated domain (POTRA). Due to the similarities between this mechanism of transport and the systems of transport that exist in chloroplasts and mitochondria, this system is expected to be able to transport extremely complex protein structures, but Vb or Vc systems of autotransport have been rarely used.

Enzymes are immobilized to the surface of the minicell by means of protein mediated membrane localization mechanisms including, but are not limited to the following linking proteins and mechanisms. In some embodiments, these systems include the BrkA protein, and AIDA-1 protein. The comparison of autotransporter and Ice Nucleation Protein as carrier proteins for protein display on the cell surface of E. coli is reported by Yang et al. 2013, Progress in Biochemistry and Biophysics 40(12):1209-1219, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

AIDA-I Autotransporter System

One of the most widely studied autotransporter is AIDA-1 which naturally occurs in E. coli. It was originally discovered in a pathogenic strain of E. coli but was subsequently transferred to laboratory E. coli strains using both the pAIDA-1 plasmid and the pDT1 plasmids.

In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides the pAIDA-1 expression vector in which a polynucleotide sequence encoding a protein of interest including lipase. For example, the recombinant pAIDA-1 expression vector with lipase-encoding gene is illustrated in FIGS. 4A and 4B. The AIDA-I autotransport system consists of an N-terminus 5 kDa signaling peptide, a 5 kDa linker region, and a 47 kDA C-terminus translocation unit. The passenger domain is located between the signaling peptide and the linker domain. This autotransporter with no protein in its passenger domain is a total of 63 kDa. The protein of interest is inserted into the passenger domain in order to enable surface expression. This corresponds genetically to the signaling peptide region of the protein being located between the NdeI and SaII, the passenger domain between KpnI and SacI, the linker region of the peptide between the XbaI and NotI restriction sites, and the rest of the protein corresponding to the C-terminus translocation unit.

The pAIDA-1-lipase expression vector contains the AIDA-I gene under inducible control with a lacUV5 promoter and includes 2 protein tags (6×His Tag and Myc Tag) and 2 protease cleavage sites (HRV3C and TEV) in order to enable surface expression analysis. FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrates the pAIDA-1 lipase expression vector. The TEV site is an amino acid sequence recognized by the tobacco etch virus. It is a well-known, highly specific protease. The HRV3C site is another highly specific protease cleavage site located C-terminus to the 6×His tag. Both of these protease cleavage sites are used for protein tag removal for analytical purposes if desired. The 6×His tag is located between the SaII and the KpnI site. This 6×his tag was used for immunofluorescent staining with THE™ His Tag antibody [FITC] from Genscript® as well as used for Cobalt Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography for purification of the protein for assay confirmation of presence. The TEV site is N-terminus of the Myc tag and located between SacI and XbaI restriction site within the AIDA-I gene located in the pAIDA-I plasmid. The Myc tag present on the plasmid can be used for immunofluorescent staining, however this capability was not utilized.

Further components of the plasmid include a lac operator and a lad repressor gene placed under control of the lad promoter. These three components work in conjunction with the lacUV promoter in order to regulate expression of the AIDA-I gene. The pAIDA-1 plasmid maintained in vivo by the p15a origin of replication which is a medium copy origin of replication. This differs from a low copy or high copy origin of replication simply by the relative number of copies of the plasmid maintained within the cell. The antibiotic resistance gene for this plasmid is chloramphenicol (CmR) under control of its own promoter.

Brk Auto Display

The Brk has been recently discovered as autotransporter (autodisplay) protein. An autotransporter domain is a structural domain found in some bacterial outer membrane proteins. The domain is located at the C-terminal end of the protein and forms a beta-barrel structure. The barrel is oriented in the membrane such that the N-terminal portion of the protein, termed the passenger domain, is presented on the cell surface. With recently characterized autotransporter BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein A) from Bordetella pertussis, BrkAutoDisplay system works better for surface display compared to other systems such as using the Ice Nucleation Protein (INP). The BrkAutoDisplay system for functional display of multiple exogenous proteins on the E. coli surface using BrkA autotransporter is exemplified by Sun et al. 2015, Microb. Cell Fact. 14:129, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

The BrkA protein (GenBank WP_010931506.1) is found as a 1010 amino acid chain length protein in its native form. The first 59 amino acids represent the signal peptide and the Beta barrel is formed between amino acids 693-1010. The Translocation domain corresponds to amino acids 545-1010. The passenger domain corresponds to amino acids 60-544, which is replaced with the proteins of interest such as lipase and/or glucose isomerase. The first 59 amino acids and the Beta barrel region, 693-1010, represent the minimal translocation domain.

The present disclosure teaches that a recombinant expression vector/construct for expression a fusion protein possesses two polynucleotide sequences encoding i) the first 228 amino acids (signal peptide and 5′ partial passenger domain) and ii) the 694-1010 amino acid (Beta barrel domain) sequence of the BrkA protein. In this recombinant expression vector, polynucleotide sequences encoding protein of interest such as lipase are inserted between these two segments (i) one for the signal peptide and 5′ partial passenger domain, and ii) the other for the Beta barrel domain) of the BrkA protein. Once the fusion protein is trafficked to the membrane, it is cleaved between the Asn731 and Ala732 residues corresponding to location of the wild-type BrkA protein, upon which the protein of interest including lipase located between the signal peptide and the B-barrel translocation domain, adopts its mature conformation and is displayed externally on the surface of the cells. The recombinant expression vector used herein is illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6B. The pGEX-6P-1 Brk-lipase expression vector contains the AIDA-I gene under control with a tac promoter and includes protein tags (6×His Tag and Myc Tag) and two protease cleavage sites (HRV3C and TEV) in order to enable surface expression analysis. The uses of 6×His tag and Myc tag are well described above.

In further embodiments, the BrkAutodisplay system in the E coli B strains including, but are not limited to BL21, BL21(DE3), LPS-modified BL21(DE3), B8 and BL21-AI shows a greater aggregation towards the polar ends of the cell membrane, resulting in a greater retention in the minicells because minicells bud off the polar ends from the parent cells. However, this phenomenon is not observed in the other minicell-producing cell lines such as the wild type P678-54 strain. The present disclosure teaches that the application of this autotransporter with E coli B strain derivatives provides an advantage of greater retention of the surface displayed protein/enzyme of interest in the final minicell product.

Vectors

In some embodiments, pUC-57 vector is used for knocking out a gene of target including minC, minD, and minC/D for including the production of minicells from the protease-deficient strain. From the 5′ and 3′ ends of the gene of target, about 50 base pairs of nucleotide sequence (homologous arms) corresponding to the gene of target within the genome are used for homologous recombination to knock out the gene of target. This directs the gene of interest to the place in the genome to replace the gene of target that are aimed to be knocked out. Just inside of the homologous arms, hairpin loops were inserted. These hairpin loops, when transcribed to mRNA, do not allow for any translation of what is contained between the loops in which the translation starts outside of the hairpin loops. These hairpin loops are formed upon translation of DNA to RNA and are also known as stem loops. This allows for the insert to not interfere with the native promotion of the other genes in the min system. Due to the hairpin loops, the chloramphenicol cassette (CmR) that was contained within the insert was placed under control of its own promoter, the cat promoter. By including the hairpin loops, this promoter would also not affect the regulation of any genes.

In some embodiments, the pET-9a plasmid can be used for expressing a protein of interest when the protease-deficient strain in which the protein of interest can be expressed has its own T7 RNA polymerase activity. The pEF-9a expression vector is illustrated in FIG. 8A. This plasmid is operated under the T7 promotion system which includes a promoter region upstream of the gene of interest. This promoter sequence is essentially a recognition site of the T7 RNA polymerase located under inducible control within the genome of the cell line in which the vector is transformed. Thus, production of the protein of interest is controlled by the promoter that controls the T7 rather than a promoter present on the plasmid. Because the plasmid is under control of the T7 promoter, directly after the gene is a T7 terminator region. This is to ensure that only the gene of interest is overexpressed. C-terminus to the protein of interest is the T7 epitope tag which can be used for immunofluorescent staining purposes. This plasmid is maintained in vivo by the pBR322 origin of replication which is normally a high copy origin of replication. However, T7 promotion with a high copy origin of replication is undesirable (toxic levels of protein) so the rop gene was also included in order to keep the copy number low. This plasmid contains a kanamycin resistance cassette (KanR) under control of its own promoter and thus is selected for with kanamycin.

In some embodiments, the pGEX-6P-1 plasmid can be used for expressing a protein of interest when the protease-deficient strain in which the protein of interest can be expressed does not have a T7 RNA polymerase activity. The pGEX-6P-1 expression vector is illustrated in FIG. 8B. The pGEX-6P-1 is operated under the tac promotion system. The tac promotion system is a hybrid promotion system between the trp promoter and the lac promoter. By hybridizing the promotion system, the binding/release lad protein (inhibitor) is the mechanism of modulation of the promotion system, but it allows for tunable expression levels by varying the concentration of the induction agent (normally IPTG). This lad gene and its promoter are included on the plasmid in order to mitigate any basal level of gene expression thus enhancing the degree of expression control resulting from the tac promoter.

This pGEX plasmid normally contains a glutathione S-transferase tag (GST) which enables for protein purification or immunochemical applications. However, given the purpose of the present disclosure, the start codon (ATG) for the GST tag was removed from the pGEX-6P-1 plasmid in order to decrease the size of the overall protein of interest to ensure adequate overexpression. This plasmid also contains an HRV3C cleavage site for removal of the tag post purification.

This plasmid is maintained in vivo by the pBR322 origin of replication which is a high copy origin of replication. Unlike the T7 promotion system, the level of protein accumulated using the tac promotion system with a high copy plasmid is not toxic due to the use of the native RNA polymerase for mRNA production. This pGEX plasmid contains an ampicillin resistance cassette (AmpR) under the control of its own promoter.

Enzyme Immobilization on surface of Gram Positive Bacterial Derivatives

Enzymes are immobilized to the surface of the minicell by means of protein mediated membrane localization mechanisms including but not limited to the following linking proteins and mechanisms: Sortase linking mechanism. Sortase is one of autotransporters for enzyme immobilization that specifically works in gram positive bacteria cells like Bacillus Subtilis. This sortase is induced with D (+) xylose. Sortase is a transpeptidase that attaches surface proteins to the cell wall; it cleaves between the Gly and Thr of the LPXTG motif and catalyzes the formation of an amide bond between the carboxyl-group of threonine and the amino-group of the cell-wall peptidoglycan. In some embodiments, the LPXTG motif can be inserted into the end of the C-terminus of the enzymatically active polypeptide of interest to express on the surface of gram positive bacterial cell. The Sortase can recognize this motif and covalently bind the enzymatically active polypeptide to the surface of the gram positive bacterial cell.

Likewise, minicells can be engineered from Extremophiles such that they retain the resilient physical and chemical properties of the parent species. For instance minicells from thermophiles would retain the resistance to high temperatures. Fluorescent protein fusions, ATP synthase mediated protein localization, Succinate dehydrogenase mediated protein localization. The focalization of membrane proteins and linking mechanisms in Gram-Positive Bacteria is reported by Mitra S D et al 2016, Trends in Microbiology, 24 (8):611-621, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

Enzyme Immobilization on the Surface of Yeast Derivatives

Enzymes can be immobilized to the surface of the yeast minicell via surface display proteins. Minicells can be produced from yeast strains, including but not limited to Saccharomyes cervisiae, Pichia pastoris and Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

The crystal structures of mammalian membrane proteins derived from recombinant sources were solved from protein expressed in yeast cells: the Ca²⁺-ATPase (SERCA1a) from rabbit. This protein was overexpressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Also, the rat voltage-dependent potassium ion channel, Kv1.2 was produced in Pichia pastoris to understand its structure. Since then, several other host cells have been used for eukaryotic membrane protein production including Escherichia coli, baculovirus-infected insect cells and mammalian cell-lines. Whilst all host systems have advantages and disadvantages, yeasts have remained a consistently-popular choice in the eukaryotic membrane protein field. As microbes, they are quick, easy and cheap to culture; as eukaryotes they are able to post-translationally process eukaryotic membrane proteins. Very recent crystal structures of recombinant transmembrane proteins produced in yeast include those of human aquaporin 2, chicken bestrophin-1, the human TRAAK channel, human leukotriene C₄ synthase, an algal P-glycoprotein homologue and mouse P-glycoprotein using P. pastoris-derived samples; the structures of the Arabidopsis thaliana NRT1.1 nitrate transporter, a fungal plant pathogen TMEM16 lipid scramblase and the yeast mitochondrial ADP/ATP carrier were solved using recombinant protein produced in S. cerevisiae. Due to its features as an eukaryotic cells, yeast cells can be used for the purpose of enzyme-immobilized minicell production.

The yeast membrane differs in composition from that of mammalian membranes. This is relevant to subsequent structural and functional studies of recombinant membrane proteins produced in yeast because lipids have a particularly important role in the normal function of membrane proteins by contributing to membrane fluidity and may directly interact with membrane proteins.

In an attempt to “humanize” the yeast membrane, yeast strains have been developed that synthesize cholesterol rather than the native yeast sterol, ergosterol. This was achieved by replacing the ERGS and ERG6 genes of the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway with the mammalian genes DHRC24 and DHRC7 and, respectively. The gene products of DHRC7 and DHRC24 were identified as key enzymes that saturate sterol intermediates at positions C7 and C24 in cholesterol (but not ergosterol) synthesis. Erg5p introduces a double bond at position C22 and Erg6p adds a methyl group at position C24 in the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway and therefore competes with the gene product of DHRC24 for its substrate.

In addition to the open reading frame (ORF) of the gene of interest, a typical expression plasmid usually incorporate a number of other sequences in its expression cassette. The S. cerevisiae α-mating factor signal sequence is a common addition to commercial expression plasmids because it is believed to correctly-target recombinant membrane proteins to the yeast membrane. For example, its presence had a positive impact on the yield of the mouse 5-HT_(5A) serotonin receptor but dramatically reduced expression of the histamine Hi receptor. Alternative signal sequences have been used (albeit much less frequently) such as the STE2 leader sequence of the fungal GPCR, Ste2p. The known signal sequences in yeast can be another advantage for trafficking a protein of interest fused to membrane-associated protein/domain and immobilizing the protein of interest on the surface of yeast cell.

Uses of Enzyme Immobilization Platform

When using enzyme-immobilized minicells can be used as a platform for improving enzyme activity and stability, when harsh conditions are required for desired enzymatic reactions than normal conditions, and/or when high cycles with prolonged reaction time are required from the enzyme.

In some embodiments, the minicell-based enzyme immobilization platform is used to purify enzymes that are not easily purified. For example, if an enzyme of interest is difficult to be extracted and purified from the lysed cells, the enzyme can be immobilized to the minicell and the minicell can be purified, instead of the enzyme.

In other embodiments, the minicell-based enzyme immobilization platform can be used as an immobilization chassis. Minicells purified from the parental cells can be used for post fermentation incubation with any enzyme of choice. For the post fermentation incubation, two independent fermentations are required; i) the minicell fermentation and 2) the enzyme fermentation. After the minicell and the enzyme are isolated, respectively, the minicells can be incubated with the enzyme that is either purified or non-purified so that the enzyme may bind to the surface of the minicell. In one process, the minicells is fermented to have surface-expressing moiety X. In the other process, the enzyme is fermented to have a binding moiety complementary to moiety X. After separating minicells that express moiety X on the surface, they can be incubated with an enzyme solution, where the enzyme has a complementary moiety that recognizes and binds to moiety X. From this post fermentation incubation, the enzyme of choice can be captured by the minicells and surface displayed.

In other embodiments, the present disclosure teaches co-localization of surface immobilized enzymes that described herein. More than one enzyme are expressed on the anucleated cell, and work symbiotically for an intended outcome. One enzyme can bind to a substrate for its own enzymatic activity while another enzyme function with another substrate for its own enzymatic activity. This can be exemplified by how a cellulosome would work, when three cellulases work together synergistically to break down cellulose. For example, lipase can be used in conjunction with protease in biological detergents in order to break down and digest the substances in stains into smaller and more water soluble substances when both lipase and protease are surface-expressed and immobilized to minicells.

In some embodiments, the anucleated cell comprises at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes immobilized to the surface of said cell. In other embodiments, the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes are co-localized to a desired locus, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes have its enzymatic activity at the desired locus. In some embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzymes are lipase and protease. In other embodiments, the expressed self-assembled enzymes are glucose isomerase and protease. In further embodiments, the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes have a complimentary function. In some embodiments, the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes act synergistically. In some embodiments, at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes each work to carry out a portion of an overall enzymatic reaction.

Enzyme-Immobilized Minicell Applications

The present disclosure is directed to uses and/or application of enzyme-immobilized minicells disclosed herein. There are various potential commercial applications for immobilized enzymes. The unique features of enzymes immobilized on minicells can make the production of industrial enzymes cheaper and more efficient, while making the enzymes more efficacious, easier to recycle, and increasing their active life cycles. Immobilizing enzymes can also open doors to various markets outside the enzyme industry. These applications can include preventing frost on crops and infrastructure (roads, airplanes, etc.), heavy metal and antibiotic remediation in bodies of water, the removal and degradation of chemical agents, nitrogen fixation, and antimicrobial medicines.

The present disclosure teaches compositions and methods for the immobilization of enzymes on the surface of achromosomal and/or anucleate cells, including but are not limited to anucleate cells derived from eubacteria, archaebacteria, and yeast, in applications such as agriculture, animal feed, food, beverages, industrial enzymes, textiles, pulp and paper, biofuels, fermentation, bioremediation, bioenergy, electronics, defense, bioenergy, household care, pharmaceuticals, and others uses.

In some embodiments, the development of enzyme-immobilized minicells allowed the introduction of enzymes into true industrial products and processes, for example, within the detergent (including laundry and dish wash) industries, starch and fuel industries, food including dairy industries, baking industries, animal feed industries, beverage industries, textile industries, pulp and paper industries, fats and oils industries, organic synthesis industries, leather industries, and/or personal care industries. In some embodiments, enzymes expressed on the surface of minicells disclosed herein can have applications in various industrial segments as illustrated in Table 1. In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches production, uses, and/or application of lipase-immobilized minicells. In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches production, uses, and/or application of glucose isomerase-immobilized minicells.

TABLE 1 Applications of exemplary enzymes in various industrial segments Industry Enzyme class Application Detergent Protease Protein stain removal (laundry and Amylase Starch stain removal dish wash) Lipase Lipid stain removal Cellulase Cleaning, color clarification, anti-redeposition (cotton) Mannanase Mannanan stain removal (reappearing stains) Starch Amylase Starch liquefaction and saccharification and fuel Amyloglucosidase Saccharification Pullulanase Saccharification Glucose isomerase Glucose to fructose conversion Cyclodextrin- Cyclodextrin production glycosyltransferase Xylanase Viscosity reduction (fuel and starch) Protease Protease (yeast nutrition-fuel) Food Protease Milk clotting, infant formulas (low (including allergenic), flavor dairy) Lipase Cheese flavor Lactase Lactose removal (milk) Pectin methyl esterase Firming fruit-based products Pectinase Fruit-based products Transglutaminase Modify visco-elastic properties Baking Amylase Bread softness and volume, flour adjustment Xylanase Dough conditioning Lipase Dough stability and conditioning (in situ emulsifier) Phospholipase Dough stability and conditioning (in situ emulsifier) Glucose oxidase Dough strengthening Lipoxygenase Dough strengthening, bread whitening Protease Biscuits, cookies Transglutaminase Laminated dough strengths Animal feed Phytase Phytate digestibility-phosphorus release Xylanase Digestibility beta-Glucanase Digestibility Beverage Pectinase De-pectinization, mashing Amylase Juice treatment, low calorie beer Beta-Glucanase Mashing Acetolactate decarboxylase Maturation (beer) Laccase Clarification (juice), flavor (beer), cork stopper treatment Textile Cellulase Denim finishing, cotton softening Amylase De-sizing Pectate lyase Scouring Catalase Bleach termination Laccase Bleaching Peroxidase Excess dye removal Pulp Lipase Pitch control, contaminant control and paper Protease Biofilm removal Amylase Starch-coating, de-inking, drainage improvement Xylanase Bleach boosting Cellulase De-inking, drainage improvement, fiber modification Fats and oils Lipase Transesterification Phospholipase De-gumming, lyso-lecithin production Organic Lipase Resolution of chiral alcohols and synthesis amides Acylase Synthesis of semisynthetic penicillin Nitrilase Synthesis of enantiopure carboxylic acids Leather Protease Unhearing, bating Lipase De-pickling Personal care Amyloglucosidase Antimicrobial (combined with glucose oxidase) Glucose oxidase Bleaching, antimicrobial Peroxidase Antimicrobial

In some embodiments, the present disclosure teaches use of immobilized lipase. Lipases are one of the most commonly used classes of enzymes in biocatalysis. Lipases catalyze the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols to diacylglycerol, monoacylglycerol, glycerol and free fatty acids. The reaction reverses under anhydrous conditions and the enzyme is able to synthesize new molecules by esterification, alcoholysis and transesterification. All reactions can be performed with high regio- and enantioselectivity under mild reaction conditions. Lipases have been used on a variety of substrates and show very broad substrate specificity due to the ubiquity in nature and the heterogeneity of lipases from different sources. For example, Candida antarctica can be a source of industrially important lipases. Immobilized Candida antarctica lipase can be used to catalyze the regioselective acylation of flavonoids or the direct acetylation with phenolic acids. Lipase can from Candida antarctica (Lipase B). In the detergent industry, immobilized lipases are used for fatty acid and oily stain removal, In the fuel industry, immobilized lipases are used for biodiesel production. Biodiesel is a fatty acid alkyl ester that can be derived from any vegetable oil or animal fat via the process of transesterification that can be catalyzed by lipase. In the food industry, immobilized lipases are used in dairy and baking. In the chemical industry, immobilized lipases are used for resolution of chiral alcohols and amines.

Production of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is the biggest industrial use of immobilized enzymes. The enzyme glucose isomerase is immobilized, and this enzyme converts the glucose in the corn syrup to fructose, which makes it sweeter. HFCS is used as a sweetener in place of sucrose, especially in the USA where sugar prices are high. It is not widely used in Europe, because sucrose is cheaper there and there are concerns about the health risks of HFCS.

Immobilized lactase can be used to produce lactose-free milk: normal milk is poured down a column containing the immobilized lactase enzymes, which break down the lactose. After the milk has passed through this platform, it will only contain the products of the reaction (glucose and galactose), so lactose-intolerant people (and cats) can drink it.

Immobilized pectinase can be used to break down these pectins, loosening the connections between cells. This increases the amount of juice obtained from the fruit, makes the juice runnier and gets rid of the cloudiness that pectins can cause.

Immobilized Protease (also known as a proteolytic enzyme, peptidase or proteinase) can function mainly to help us digest different kinds of proteins. Protease breaks down the bonds by a process known as hydrolysis and convert proteins into smaller chains called peptides or even smaller units called amino acids.

Commercial Applications of Enzymes

Enzymes now have a large number of commercial applications. They carry many advantages, with one important one being that enzymes are specific to only one catalytic reaction and so they therefore do not produce a range of unwanted by-products.

Enzymes are widely used in the textile industry. They are used for improving production methods and for fabric finishing. In this industry, a very common application is the use of the enzyme amylase in order to remove starch size. The threads (the longitudinal threads) of the fabrics are often coated in starch. This prevents them from breaker when weaving takes place. In the textile industry, a process called scouring is used (the cleaning of fabrics by removing any impurities such as waxes, pectins and any mineral salts from cellulose fibers). Pectin can act as a glue between the core of the fibers and the waxes, but this can be destroyed by an alkaline called pectinase. Cellulases have quite recently become the tool for fabric finishing. This began in denim finishing where it was discovered that cellulases could achieve the fashionable stonewashed look traditionally achieved through the abrasive action of pumice stones. Cellulases are also quite often used in order to prevent pilling and improve the smoothness and color brightness of cotton fabrics. In addition, a softer handle is obtained. Catalases can also be used for degrading residual hydrogen peroxide after the bleaching of cotton. Hydrogen peroxide has to be removed before dyeing. Protease enzymes are used for wool treatment and the degumming of raw silk. Examples of enzymes that may be used in the textile industry: Cellulase—for stonewashing denim, polishing of cotton; Catalase—removing hydrogen peroxide; Pectinase—for bioscouring (a way to scour fabrics); Alpha amylase—for desizing at low temperatures.

The food and drink industry has to be one of the largest markets for enzymes. In the baking industry, enzymes are added to the dough when baking bread to ensure that the bread is high in quality and has a better volume (that there is more of it). Enzymes also have the ability to preserve bread; keeping it fresh for a longer period of time and therefore increasing its shelf life. In the dairy industry, enzymes are used in cheese making to help bring about the coagulation of milk. In these applications, enzymes from microbial and animal sources are used. Industrial enzymes are added to control the brewing process in alcohol making and the brewing industry. This also helps to produce consistent and high quality beer. When making wines and juices, enzymes are used to break down cell walls of plants when extracting plant material. This use of enzymes would give higher juice yields and also improves the color and smell of the extracted substances. Examples of enzymes that may be used in the baking industry: Fungal alpha amylase—for dough improvement in the bread making industry; Glucoamylase—used in fermentation; Papain enzymes—for fermentation in the brewing industry; Beta glucanse—for filtration; Protease—used in biscuit production.

Enzymes are also used in the pulp and paper industry. Amylase is used for modification of starch coating and xylanases to reduce the consumption of bleach chemicals are known applications, but nowadays lipases for is used for pitch control, esterases is used for stickies removal and amylases and cellulases are used for improved deinking and cellulases for fiber modification have become an integral part of the chemical solutions used in the pulp and paper mills.′ In the manufacturing of coated papers, a starch-based coating formulation is used in order to coat the surface of the paper. Compared with the uncoated paper, the coating provides a number of benefits, including; improved gloss, a smoother texture, and printing properties. Examples of enzymes that may be used in the pulp and paper industry: Cellulase—can be used for pulp deinking and pulp refining; Xylanase—for pulp bleaching; Alpha amylase—starch modification.

Enzymes are used in detergents and in personal care and hygiene. They are used in many household and industrial detergents. This industry, in addition to the food processing industry is currently one of the largest application areas for enzymes. This is because the enzymes are very effective at relatively low temperatures and pH values. They contribute to a: better overall cleaning performance; they are biodegradable so they do not really effect the environment that much; they reduce water consumption through more effective release of soil.

Bioethanol is a type of biofuel. It may be used when adding fuel to a vehicle. This biofuel is able to be produced from starchy plant materials with the use of enzymes that are capable of efficiently making this conversion. At the moment, corn is widely used as a source of starch, however increasing interest in bioethanol is raising concerns as corn prices rise and corn as a food supply is being threatened. Other plants including wheat, bamboo, or other grasses are possible candidate sources of starch for bioethanol production. Bioethanol production (the growing of crops, shipping and manufacturing) still requires a large input of non-renewable resources. Technological research and manipulation of enzymes to make the process more efficient, thus requiring less plant material or consuming less fossil fuels, are in the works, to improve on this area of biotechnology.

Protease enzyme is used in the manufacturing of baby foods to predigest proteins.

Lipase can be used in conjunction with protease in biological detergents in order to break down and digest the substances in stains into smaller and more water soluble substances.

Carbohydrase can be used to convert starch syrup into sugar syrup. This is done during the manufacturing of sports drinks; sugar syrup is much more valuable than starch syrup, which is relatively cheap. Isomerase can be used in slimming foods/weight loss products. It converts the glucose syrup into fructose syrup (fructose is much sweeter than glucose so it can be used in much smaller amounts, thus saving money during the production processes).

Zymase can be used in alcohol manufacturing. Fermentation is another method used for manufacturing alcohol. During the fermentation process, carbohydrates are converted into ethanol (with carbon dioxide as a byproduct). The carbohydrate is usually a sugar or a starch. The ethanol that is produced during the fermentation process may have an alcohol concentration of up to 14%. The fermentation process is carried out at quite low temperatures using used. It is the zymase enzymes that are present in the yeast that actually catalyse the fermentation reactions. The reaction takes places at temperatures between 25.0 and 37.C. This is because zymase would begin to denature at temperatures above 37.0 and it would therefore begin to lose its function and efficiency, whereas at temperature bellow 25.0 the reaction would be too slow. Zymase also stops functioning at an alcohol concentration of above 14%.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are given for the purpose of illustrating various embodiments of the disclosure and are not meant to limit the present disclosure in any fashion. Changes therein and other uses which are encompassed within the spirit of the disclosure, as defined by the scope of the claims, will occur to those skilled in the art.

Example 1. Production of Protease-Deficient Minicells

In order to create protease-deficient minicells, the genes (minC and minD) that guide replication in a protease-deficient BL21 (DE3) E. coli strain were knocked out. Also, BL21-AI strain was used for producing protease-deficient minicells. BL21-AI strain is the same as the BL21 (DE3) strain, except for one major difference. While BL21-AI uses an arabinose promoter that controls the production of T7 RNA polymerase, a lac promoter controls the production of T7 RNA polymerase in the BL21(DE3) strain. When comparing to the wild type minicell-producing p678-54 strain, BL21 and BL21-AI are deficient in ion and ompT proteases, which make them protease-deficient bacterial strains.

The success of these knockouts was determined by PCR amplification (Eppendorf Mastercycler 5333) and morphological characterization using the Laxco LMC4000 microscope (40× Objective, brightfield and fluorescent LED light sources) in conjunction with the Zeiss Sigma VP HD field SEM (UVA Advanced Microscopy Core). Based on the results shown in FIGS. 17A and 17B, it was determined that the minC, minD, and/or minC/D knockouts produced the minicells closest in morphological characteristics to the original wild type P678-54 strain producing minicells (Adler et al., 1967, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 57:321-326; Inselburg J, 1970 J. Bacteriol. 102(3):642-647; Frazer 1975, Curr. Topics Microbiol. Immunol. 69:1-10). As an example, FIG. 17B shows the minicells in which minC gene is deleted.

To further investigate which gene knockout was responsible for producing minicells closest to the minicell-producing wild type p678-54 strains, the Lambda Red homologous recombination system was used. This lambda red recombinant-engineering system relies on three different proteins (Beta, Gam, and Exo) required for facilitating insertion of double stranded linear DNA into the genome guided by homology to the already existing genome, as exemplified by Murphy K C, 2011 Methods Mol. Biol. 765:27-42. All of these proteins are expressed via a plasmid with the pSC101 origin of replication containing the RepA protein which only allows for plasmid replication at 30° C. Thus, once the genetic manipulation is complete, the plasmid is removed from the cell line by growth at 37° C.

The genes that were inserted into the genome were designed to have 50 base pairs of homology to both the 5′ and 3′ ends of a targeted gene to be knocked out. The homology corresponded to 50 base pairs at the 5′ (SEQ ID NO:1) and 3′ end (SEQ ID NO:2) of minC in order to knockout minC, at the 5′ (SEQ ID NO:3) and 3′ end (SEQ ID NO:4) of minD in order to knockout minD, or 5′ end (SEQ ID NO:3) of minD and 3′ end (SEQ ID NO:2) of minC in order to knockout minCD, respectively. A chloramphenicol cassette with its promoter flanked by two hairpin loops was inserted in place of either minC, minD, or minC/D. The hairpin loops were included in the insert in order to not interfere with the regulation of other genes in the same area of the genome, due to their ability to stop transcription.

These genes were inserted into a pUC57 backbone as shown in FIGS. 1-3. This plasmid was used as a template to then amplify out the gene of interest to verify that the sequence information is accurate before integrate them into the host genome. All amplifications were run across 6 different annealing temperatures with the following components and conditions as shown in Tables 3 and 4. Table 2 displays that two different sets of primers were designed per each gene knockout amplification. All primers were synthesized by the service provider, Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT).

TABLE 2 Information on primer sets for testing min gene knockout Amplification Name Sequence Designation F2 minCKO AACAACAATAATGCGTGCCAT A R2 minCKO GCGCTGGCGATGATTAATAG A F9 minCKO AGTAACAACAATAATGCGTGCC B R9 minCKO CGCGCTGGCGATGATT B F7 minDKO TTCCGCGAGAGAAAGAAATCG C R7 minDKO GACCGTTCAACCGTTAAATTGAT C F10 minDKO CTGTGTTTTTCTTCCGCGAG D R10 minDKO TCAACCGTTAAATTGATCCCTTTTT D F6 minCDKO TCCGCGAGAGAAAGAAATCG E R6 minCDKO CGCGCTGGCGATGATTA E F9 minCDKO CTGTGTTTTTCTTCCGCGAG F R9 minCDKO CGCGCTGGCGATGATT F

TABLE 3 Components for PCR reaction Contents Volume Final Component (uL) Concentration Nuclease Free Water 17.5 N/A Template DNA (5 ng/uL) 1 5 ng 10 uM Forward Primer 2.5 500 nM 10 uM Reverse Primer 2.5 500 nM DMSO 1.5 3% Phusion HF Master Mix 25 1X

TABLE 4 Conditions for PCR reaction Conditions 55 Cycles Time Steps Temperature (° C.) (seconds) Initial Denaturation 98 30 Cycle Denaturation 98 10 Cycle Annealing 64, 4° Gradient 30 Cycle Extension 72 30 Final Extension 72 600 Hold  4 N/A

Six series amplifications from A to F (Table 2) were run with each of the following annealing temperatures shown in Table 5. The number following the letter correspond to the position on the PCR plate with a gap between each well because of the slight increase in temperature from well to well. (example: well number A2 was the A series amplification run with Tm 1; A4—A series amplification run with Tm 2; A6—A series amplification run with Tm 3; A8—A series amplification run with Tm 4; A10—A series amplification run with Tm 5; A12—A series amplification run with Tm 6; and A1, A3, A5, A7, A9, and A11 are empty wells)

TABLE 5 Information on annealing temperatures for PCR reaction Annealing Temperatures Tm Number Tm ° C. 1 59.8 2 60.8 3 62.8 4 65.1 5 66.9 6 67.6

All amplifications were cleaned up using the Monarch® PCR and DNA Cleanup kit according to their standard protocol. All DNA was eluted with enough elution buffer in order to provide for adequate DNA quantification and quality determination. After cleanup, all amplifications were run on a gel against the 1 kB plus ladder from Invitrogen® to determine success of the PCR reaction. All amplifications run at all annealing temperatures were successful by visualization of a single band at about 1080 base pairs. All DNA visualization was accomplished using a 1% Agarose (w/v) gel prepared with 1×TAE and SYBR safe stain in conjunction with the Invitrogen Safe Imager 2.0.

These bands were extracted from the gel using the disposable scalpels and the Monarch® DNA gel extraction kit according to their standard protocol. After extraction the DNA was quantified, its quality was determined before sending off for sequencing from Eton Biosciences. Primers used for amplification (Table 2) were used for sequencing determination. All sequences came back with ˜99% identity, thus they were deemed suitable for insertion into the genome.

The lambda red plasmid was transformed into a chemically competent protease-deficient E. coli strain via the heat shock method (see examples; Rahimzadeh et al. 2016, Mol. Boil. Res. Commun. 5(4):257-261). It was plated on a selective LB Agar plate, and re-streaked the following day in order to be sure that a single colony was isolated for lambda red recombination.

In order to introduce the PCR generated DNA into the genome, the TransformAid Bacterial Transformation Kit from Thermon Scientific™ was used with a modified protocol.

A single colony was grown in C-medium at 30° C. overnight. Next day, a 1:100 dilution of the cultured cells were inoculated into fresh C-medium. This was grown at 30° C. until it reached an optical density of about 0.2 (measured at 600 nm). This culture was induced with 1 mM IPTG for 20 minutes to allow for sufficient production and accumulation of the three proteins vital for this procedure (Beta, Gam, and Exo). After induction for every 1.5 mL of inoculated culture volume, the cells were pelleted for 1 minute at 10,000 rcf and resuspended in 300 uL of cold T-solution and incubated for 5 minutes. The cells were then pelleted again and resuspended in 120 uL of cold T-solution for 5 minutes. After the final incubation step, 50 uL of cells and 50 ng of PCR amplification were combined for each transformation and incubated on ice for 5 minutes. From here, 250 uL of SOC medium was added to each transformation and let grow for 90 minutes at 37° C. After the 90 minute outgrowth, all 300 uL of transformation was plated on Chloramphenicol LB Agar plates (10 ug/mL) and let the transformed cells grow overnight.

This protocol resulted in the successful transformation of almost all of the genes attempted (3 from each series). The morphology of the transformed cells was examined from each successful transformant on the Laxco LMC4000 (40× objective, brightfield) and it was determined that the minC knockouts (A and B) produced the most morphologically similar minicells to the control p678-54 strain from which minicells were discovered. These BL21 and BL21-AI strains were two strains that were used for protease-deficient minicells and analyzed genetically.

In order to confirm presence of the knockouts in the genome, primers were designed to amplify out specific parts of the knockouts of minC and/or minD. The 5′ and 3′ end of the insert was confirmed by having the primers span regions both inside and outside of the insert. The primers in Table 6 were used according to the following conditions in Tables 7-9.

TABLE 6  Information on primer sets for testing min gene knockout Name Annealing Sequence Designation 3′minCKO_1 GGCCGGATAAAACTTGTGCT 1 3′minCKO_2 AGTCTTCGGAACATCATCGC 2 5′minCKO_1 CCCTTTGCCCGAAGTAACAA 3 5′minCKO_2 ACGGTGAAAACCTGGCCTAT 4 minC_check_4_1 TCAATTTAACGGTTGAACGGTCA 5 minC_check_4_2 ATGTCAAACACGCCAATCGA 6 minD_check_2_1 TTATCCTCCGAACAAGCGTTTGA 7 minD_check_2_2 ATGGCACGCATTATTGTTGTTAC 8

TABLE 7 Components for PCR reaction Component 50 uL Reaction Final Concentration 10 uM Forward Primer 2.5 uL 0.5 uM 10 uM Reverse Primer 2.5 uL 0.5 uM DMSO 1.5 uL 3% 2X Phusion Master Mix  25 uL 1x Genomic DNA   1 uL 2 ng/uL Nuclease Free Water 17.5 uL  N/A

TABLE 8 Conditions for PCR reaction 55 Cycles Conditions Temperature Time Steps (° C.) (seconds) Initial Denaturation 98 30 Cycle Denaturation 98 10 Cycle Annealing 65, 5° Gradient 30 Cycle Extension 72 30 Final Extension 72 600  Hold  4 N/A

TABLE 9 Information on annealing temperatures for PCR reaction Annealing Temperatures Tm Number Tm ° C. 1 59.9 2 61.3 3 63.8 4 66.6 5 69.7 6 67.6

After PCR amplification, all products were cleaned up using either the Monarch® PCR and DNA Clean up Kit or the DNA Clean & Concentrator Kit™-5 with Zymo-Spin IC Columns. The purified PCR amplicants were then run in a DNA Agarose gel with the above conditions and visualized the same way. For both the A and B series, reactions using a pair of primers 1-2 and another pair of primers 3-4 produced primarily a single band at the appropriate size, respectively. Reaction with a set of primers 7-8 produced only a single band corresponding to the minD gene. Reaction using a set of primers 5-6 was run to check for presence of minC, and this reaction produced a stratification of bands indicating a nonspecific PCR product which is to be expected after knocking out minC. All of these reactions were also run on the wild type genome for comparison. Reactions using sets of primers 1-2 and 3-4 produced a stratification of bands which is to be expected from BL21 and/or BL21-AI strains with the insert of min C and/or D knock-out system, but not in the wild type because the recombinant insert was not present in the wild type genome. Reactions using sets of primers 5-6 and 7-8 produced a single band indicating a specific PCR product, respectively.

All bands indicating a specific PCR product were extracted from the gel using the Monarch® gel extraction kit and the DNA sequences were analyzed by Eton Biosciences. All DNA sequencing results showed almost identical (99%) sequence homology to the expected sequence with min C and/or D knocked out.

To isolation minicells from parental cells, the entire culture including parent cells and minicells is spun down at 2,000 rcf for 10 minutes to pellet the parental cells. The supernatant is then collected and spun down again at 10,000 rcf for 10 minutes to pellet the minicells. The supernatant is discarded and the pelleted minicells are resuspended in PBS or any other buffer based on their intended use.

TABLE 10 Listing of Sequences in Sequence File SEQ ID NO Type Description  1 DNA minC 5′ recombination site (5′ Homologous Arm of minC)  2 DNA minC 3′ recombination site (3′ Homologous Arm of minC)  3 DNA minD 5′ recombination site (5′ Homologous Arm of minD)  4 DNA minD 5′ recombination site (3′ Homologous Arm of minD)  5 DNA AIDA-1 surface expression cassette  6 DNA BrkAutoTransporter surface expression cassette  7 DNA BrkAutoTransporter surface expression cassette fused with CBM-encoding nucleic acid  8 DNA BrkAutoTransporter surface expression cassette fused with lipase-encoding nucleic acid  9 DNA CBM (Carbohydrate Binding Module)-encoding nucleic acid 10 DNA GFP-Nanobody sequence with CBM-encoding nucleic acid 11 DNA GFP-Nanobody sequence with lipase-encoding nucleic acid 12 DNA InaK surface expression cassette 13 DNA InaK surface expression cassette with CBM-encoding nucleic acid 14 DNA InaK surface expression cassette with lipase-encoding nucleic acid 15 DNA The optimized Lipase-encoding nucleic acid (Bacillus sp. 42 thermostable organic solvent tolerant lipase gene) 16 DNA pAIDA-1 vector 17 DNA pAIDA-1 vector with CBM-encoding nucleic acid 18 DNA pAIDA-1 vector with lipase-encodig nucleic acid 19 DNA pET-9a vector 20 DNA pGEX-6P-1 vector without ATG for GST tag 21 DNA pGEX-6P-1 vector without ATG for GST tag, containing BrkAutoTransporter surface expression cassette fused with CBM-encoding nucleic acid 22 DNA pGEX-6P-1 vector without ATG for GST tag, containing BrkAutoTransporter surface expression cassette fused with lipase-encoding nucleic acid 23 DNA pGEX-6P-1 vector without ATG for GST tag, containing InaK surface expression cassette fused with CBM-encoding nucleic acid 24 DNA pGEX-6P-1 vector without ATG for GST tag, containing InaK surface expression cassette fused with lipase-encoding nucleic acid 25 DNA F2 minCKO primer 26 DNA R2 minCKO primer 27 DNA F9 minCKO primer 28 DNA R9 minCKO primer 29 DNA F7 minDKO primer 30 DNA R7 minDKO primer 31 DNA F10 minDKO primer 32 DNA R10 minDKO primer 33 DNA F6 minCDKO primer 34 DNA R6 minCDKO primer 35 DNA F9 minCDKO primer 36 DNA R9 minCDKO primer 37 DNA 3′minCKO_1 primer 38 DNA 3′minCKO_2 primer 38 DNA 5′minCKO_1 primer 40 DNA 5′minCKO_2 primer 41 DNA minC_check_4_1 primer 42 DNA minC_check_4_2 primer 43 DNA minD_check_2_1 primer 44 DNA 3′minCKO_1 primer

Example 2. Transformation of Lipase Expression Cassette into Minicells

The genetically modified minicell-producing bacterial strain was transformed with a linker protein fused lipase expression plasmid.

The lipase-encoding gene was inserted into the AIDA-1 surface expression cassette of the pAIDA-1 vector using KpnI and SacI restriction sites, which allows the lipase protein to be expressed and displayed by the fusion with the transmembrane autotransporter protein AIDA-1 (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence) as shown in FIG. 4B. This construction was conducted with primarily designed pAIDA-1 plasmid (from Addgene, Cambirdge, Mass.) in which the lipase-encoding gene was ligated into the passenger domain within the AIDA-I autotransporter using KpnI and SacI sites as illustrated in FIG. 4A. The tags existed on the pAIDA-1 plasmid prior were used for further analysis on lipase expression. After the ligation is completed, the 6×His tag and HRV3C site are located at N-terminus of the lipase-encoding gene and the Myc tag and TEV site are placed at C-terminus of the lipase-encoding gene. The 6×His tag, which is the 5′ end of the surface-expressed fusion lipase protein was used for Cobalt immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) and for immunofluorescent staining with THE His Tag antibody [FITC] from Genscript. The pAIDA-1 vector has a chloramphenicol resistant gene so that the recombinant pAIDA-lipase expression vector can be transformed into p567-48 wild type strain, BL21 (DE3) strain, and BL21-AI strain. In order to induce minicell production from BL21 (DE3) strain and BL21-AI strain, the present disclosure uses a minC, minD, and/or minC/D knockout system by replacing the min locus with a chloramphenicol resistant gene. In this case, the new protease-deficient minicell-producing strains (e.g. minC, D, or C/D-depleted BL21 (DE3) strain and/or minC, D, or C/D-depleted BL21-AI strain) cannot be transformed with the recombinant pAIDA-1 lipase expression vector due to the presence of the same chloramphenicol resistant gene in both vector and the minicell-producing strains.

In order to express the AIDA-1 lipase fusion protein, another recombinant AIDA-Lipase expression plasmid was constructed in the backbone of pGEX-6P-1 vector. The AIDA-1 lipase surface expression cassette was cut from the pAIDA-1 lipase expression vector and cloned into the pGEX-6P-1 vector as illustrated in FIG. 5A. In this way, the new protease-deficient minicells, which has chloramphenicol resistant gene, can be selected with chloramphenicol because the pGEX-6P-1 AIDA-1-lipase vector possess Amphicilin-resistant gene.

For a bacterial surface display system named as BrkAutoDisplay based on the structure of autotransporter BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein A) was used to host an exogenous gene encoding lipase. To construct a recombinant Brk-lipase expression vector, Brk autotransporter gene was first cloned into the pGEX-6P-1 plasmid. Using BamHI and EcoRI restriction sites, the lipase-encoding gene was ligated with the Brk autotransporter gene, as illustrated in FIG. 6A. As illustrated in FIG. 6B, the lipase-encoding gene was inserted into the passenger domain of BrkA autotransporter gene. The first 177 nucleotides of the expression cassette correspond to the signaling peptide portion of the Brk autotransporter. This is the most N-terminus region of the fusion protein. This portion is cleaved during the translocation process. Immediately at the end of C-terminus of the signaling peptide is located the 6×His tag used for purification and staining. This 6×His tag is the surface expressed N-terminus end of the fusion protein after the signal peptide is cut off. C-terminus to the His tag is fused to the lipase-encoding gene, which is followed by the Myc tag and the TEV site sequentially. Then, the translocation domain of the BrkA autotransporter is located right after the TEV site. This translocation domain of the fusion protein is the most C-terminus region of the protein that is embedded in the membrane.

Another bacterial surface display protein, Ice Nucleation Protein K (InaK) was used for expressing recombinant lipase proteins fused to anchoring linker protein (motif) that direct the incorporated fusion protein on the surface of minicells. Like BrkAutoDisplay, polynucleotide encoding InaK transmembrane protein and the lipase-encoding gene were inserted into the pGEX-6P-1 vector for producing the bacterial surface display lipase protein as illustrated in FIG. 7A. For all InaK-lipase fusions, the lipase-encoding gene has a 6×His tag and an Myc tag at the C-terminus, while the TEV site is fused to N-terminus of the lipase-encoding gene. In this construct, the polynucleotide sequence encoding InaK is located before N-terminus of the TEV site. Since C-terminus of InaK protein is surface expressed and the N-terminus end becomes embedded in the membrane, the lipase-encoding gene is inserted after InaK-encoding polynucleotide sequence, which allows the lipase to be displayed on the surface while the InaK can function as a membrane anchor. The 6×His tag was used for the Cobalt immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) and for immunofluorescent staining with THE His Tag antibody [FITC] from Genscript®. The Myc tag can be used for immunofluorescent staining. The TEV site can be used for digesting off the protein of interest such as lipase for surface expression confirmation.

After construction of bacterial expression vectors for bacterial surface display fusion proteins using AIDA-1, BrkA, and InaK system was completed, transformation of each expression vector was conducted using the TransformAid Bacterial Transformation Kit (Thermo Scientific™) according to their standard protocol into the protease-deficient cell lines, BL21 and/or BL21-AI strains. The lipase was fused to each linker protein of AIDA-1, BrkA, and InaK to ensure surface-expression of the lipase. These expression plasmid can be transformed into the wild-type p678-54 strain and protease-deficient minicell-producing bacterial strains generated by the method taught in the present disclosure (e.g. minC, D, or C/D-depleted BL21 (DE3) strain and/or minC, D, or C/D-depleted BL21-AI strain).

In order to confirm presence of plasmid in the transformed bacterial strains, a miniprep was done on a culture from the strains using GeneJet Plasmid MiniPrep Kit, and the purified plasmid was submitted for DNA sequencing analysis. All sequencing confirmed the presence of the surface expression lipase plasmids in the transformed bacterial strains.

Example 3. Protein Production

The transformed strain was grown overnight in a 5 mL culture with the appropriate antibiotic. The next day, 1:100 inoculation of the cultured strain (2.5 mL of overnight culture in 250 mL of 2×YT media) was performed in 2×YT media plus appropriate antibiotic. The 2×YT media provided the surplus of nutrients necessary for efficient protein production. Once the culture reached the exponential growth stage (OD about 0.4), it was induced with 1 mM IPTG and is incubated at 30° C. overnight. The culture then was analyzed the next day for lipase production.

Example 4. Protein Imaging/Staining

The cultured cells are subjected to staining in order to determine the presence surface-expressed lipase. Slides were developed for both the Lipase-expressing minicell-producing bacterial BL21 and/or BL21-AI strain and the minicell-producing bacterial p678-54 strain that has not been transformed with the recombinant linker protein-fused lipase expression plasmid. 250 uL of poly-L-lysine was pipetted on slides for 15 minutes. After washing three times with 500 uL PBS, 500 uL of the correct cell type was pipetted on slides for 15 minutes. After washing three times with 500 uL PBS, 750 uL of 4% paraformaldehyde was pipetted on slides for 15 minutes in order to fix the cell samples to the slides. After washing three times with PBS, 500 uL of 0.1% triton x-100 PBS was added to slides allocated as permeabilized samples for 10 minutes. For non-permeabilized samples, 500 uL of PBS was added to slides during this step. After washing three times with PBS, 100 uL of 2% bovine serum albumin was pipetted on all slides as a blocking agent. After washing three times with PBS, on the slides it was pipetted 100 uL of 1 mg/mL GenScript® THE™ His Tag Antibody [FITC], mAb, Mouse antibody, which binds to the 6×-HIS tag component of the Lipase fusion protein. Then, the slides were incubated with the antibody at room temperature for 1 hour while protected from light. After washing 5-10 times with PBS, 3-4 drops of Fluoroshield Mounting Medium with DAPI were added before mounting coverslips to the slides. Fluorescent microscopy can then be implemented to analyze localization between brightfield cells and fluorescent probes that are indicative of cell presence and surface-expressed protein presence.

For identifying surface expression, cells were not permeabilized so that the stain cannot enter the cells and stain for internally expressed lipases. Thus, the non-permiabilized minicell stained with His-tag antibody presents the fusion lipase expression on the minicell surface. At first, FIG. 9A shows the expression of AIDA-1 lipase fusion protein on the surface of non-permeabilized minicells, when compared to control minicells that did not have the recombinant fusion lipase expression vector (FIG. 9C). This surface expressed lipase proteins indicates that lipase is immobilized on the surface of the minicells via the membraned-associated autotransporter AIDA-1 protein. Also, the detection of Brk-lipase fusion protein as shown in FIG. 9B demonstrates that lipase is stabilized on the surface of the minicells through the another autotransporter Brk protein, when compared to control minicells that did not have the recombinant fusion lipase expression vector (FIG. 9D). FIGS. 9C and 9D show no or little lipase expression from non-permeabilized control minicells.

In both permeabilized and nonpermeabilized minicells, the staining with His-tag antibody showed a strong signal in a majority of the population of the cells that expressing InaK-lipase fusion proteins (FIGS. 10A and 10B). However, the His-tag antibody detected little to no signal in the control samples (FIGS. 10C and 10D). The control samples are wild type p678-54 minicells that do not contain the recombinant lipase expressing plasmid so that the fusion protein cannot be detectable. Therefore, the His tag staining results indicate the expression of the fusion lipase from the minicells transformed with the recombinant lipase expression plasmid, but not the control cells. Non-permeabilized minicells (FIG. 10A) show the surface expressed lipase proteins, indicating that lipase is immobilized via the InaK linker protein on the surface of the minicells. However, the recombinant lipase is not all surface expressed from the comparison of non-permeabilized cells with permeabilized cells (FIG. 10B), indicating that endogenous lipases and/or recombinant fusion lipase minicells can be also expressed within the minicells. On the other hand, a false positive by staining any endogenously produced lipases within the transformed minicells can be detected as illustrated in the control minicells (FIGS. 10C and 10D).

Example 5. Protein Purification

Once the protein production was confirmed, the cells are ready to undergo protein purification for functional studies. The cells were incubated with Lysis Buffer for at least six hours at 37° C. They were then frozen at −20° C. They underwent at least one more freeze-thaw cycle prior to purification. Once the lysis process was complete, the cell samples are centrifuged at 10,000 rcf for 10 minutes to pellet the cell debris. The supernatant was then filtered through a Puradisc 25 mm, sterile Whatman 0.45 uM filter prior to the protein purification process.

The supernatant was incubated in a 20 mL Econopac Gravity Flow column with about 2 mL of HisPur™ Cobalt Superflow Agarose that had been equilibrated with 4 mL of Equilibration Buffer for 30 minutes in an end over end rotary mixer. The supernatant was flowed through the column. Then, the resin was washed three times with 4 mL of wash buffer before elution with 4 fractions of 2 mL each of elution buffer. Equal volumes of glycerol was added to elution fractions 1 and 2 and were dialyzed overnight in 50% glycerol (v/v) and 50 mM Sodium Phosphate buffer solution pH 7.2. After dialysis, the elution fractions were checked for presence of the fusion protein using the lipase assay. Presence of the lipase in each elution fraction was elucidated from the lipase assay described below using 50 mM 4-nitrophenyl-butyrate against a variety of control purifications. At first, the protease-deficient B8 and P678-54 cell lines were used for control, as they contained no recombinant lipase expression plasmids. Thus they do not have recombinant proteins, resulting in no lipase activity in the lipase assay. While P678-54 strain is the wild type minicell-producing strain that is commercially available, the B8 minicell strain was produced from the BL21 (DE3) strain, but the T7 RNA Polymerase activity was additionally silenced along with minC/minD/minCD knock-out effect. This B8 strain is the protease-deficient producing minicell strain without the T7 RNA Polymerase, which make it suitable for lipase assay as a negative control. The protease-deficient B8 strain without fusion lipase is used as Protease Deficient Control. Furthermore, the Brk-CBM and Inak-CBM (CBM: cellulose-binding domain) fusion protein was also used as another Linking Mechanism Control displaying the purified active CBM fusion enzyme that cannot act on the substrate given for the lipase assay. As shown in FIGS. 11A and 11B, both Brk-lipase and the Inak-lipase produced measurable lipase activity compared to protease-deficient control, wild strain control and linking mechanism control, respectively, thus demonstrating production of recombinant lipases in the BL21(DE3)-derived minicells.

Example 6. Functional Lipase Activity Analysis

In order to further confirm presence of the functional lipase-fusion protein in both the elution fraction from the protein purification and the surface of the cell, a lipase activity assay was designed using the lipase substrate, 4-nitrophenyl-butyrate. This assay was designed using the Sigma-Aldrich quality control assay for lipoprotein lipases (EC 3.1.1.34), which can also serve as a substrate for the same type of lipase fused to the surface expression carrier proteins, a triacylglycerol lipase, (EC 3.1.1.3) using Type II Lipase from Porcine Pancreas as well described in Enzymatic Assay of Lipoprotein Lipase protocol found in sigma aldrich online webpage. Kinetic analysis of the enzymatic reaction of lipase was conducted using a method of continuous spectrophotometric rate determination at 400 nm using Beer's law (A=εlC) and the extinction coefficient 0.0148 (uM⁻¹*cm⁻¹). The pathlength, 0.625 cm, was calculated from the known volume of the well (200 uL) and the well's surface area (0.32 cm²).

For the enzymatic assay, required are the reaction buffer (100 mM Sodium Phosphate Buffer solution pH 7.2, 0.5% (v/v) Triton-X 100, 150 mM Sodium Chloride), the enzyme/cell solution in 1×PBS, and the substrate solution which is varying concentrations of 4-nitrophenyl-butyrate in acetonitrile. 148 uL of the reaction buffer, 50 uL of the enzyme/cell solution, and 2 uL of the substrate solution were loaded into each well immediate prior to the start of the continuous spectrophotometric rate determination at 37° C. for 5 minutes. Then, rates were calculated by calculating the slope of the line of the concentration increase (Beer's law) versus the time the reaction proceeded in seconds. Activity was determined from a Michaelis-Menten fit of the calculated rates resulting from varying the substrate concentration according to the Table 10. Vmax and Km were calculated using GraphPad Prism Michaelis-Menten fitting parameters. FIG. 12 shows that the enzymatic reaction of AIDA-lipase (FIG. 12A and Table 11), Brk-lipase (FIG. 12B and Table 12), and InaK-lipase (FIG. 12C and Table 13) to 4-nitrophenyl-butyrate substrate, respectively.

TABLE 10 Substrate Concentrations for calculating enzymatic reaction rate Stock Concen- Concentrations trations (mM) in Well (mM) 0 0 2.5 0.025 5 0.05 7.5 0.075 10 0.1 15 0.15 20 0.2 25 0.25 30 0.3 35 0.35 40 0.4 45 0.45 50 0.5 60 0.6 70 0.7 80 0.8 500 5

TABLE 11 Enzymatic reaction rate of pAIDA-lipase pAIDA- Experimental Average Lipase Rate (uM/s) Michaelis-Menten Cells/Well: 99,946,667 Best-fit values Vmax 0.08174 Km 0.1803 Std. Error Vmax 0.008508 Km 0.05912 95% CI (profile likelihood) Vmax 0.06857 to 0.09734 Km  0.104 to 0.2922 Goodness of Fit Degrees of Freedom 49 R square 0.6414 Absolute Sum of 0.01626 Squares Sy.x 0.01822 Constraints Km Km > 0

TABLE 12 Enzymatic reaction rate of Brk-lipase Brk-Lipase Brk-Lipase Average Rate (uM/s) Michaelis-Menten Cells/Well: 17,706,667 Best-fit values Vmax 0.04453 Km 0.2207 Std. Error Vmax 0.003487 Km 0.05025 95% CI (profile likelihood) Vmax 0.03894 to 0.05088 Km 0.1503 to 0.3134 Goodness of Fit Degrees of Freedom 49 R square 0.7838 Absolute Sum of 0.002289 Squares Sy.x 0.006834 Constraints Km Km > 0

TABLE 13 Enzymatic reaction rate of Inak-lipase Inak-Lipase Experimental Average Rate (uM/s) Michaelis-Menten Cells/Well: 107,840,000 Best-fit values Vmax 0.06354 Km 0.3015 Std. Error Vmax 0.009548 Km 0.1109 95% CI (profile likelihood) Vmax 0.04894 to 0.08074 Km 0.1649 to 0.5114 Goodness of Fit Degrees of Freedom 49 R square 0.6375 Absolute Sum of 0.009709 Squares Sy.x 0.01539 Constraints Km Km > 0

Example 7. Lipase Surface Expression Via Minicell Self Assembly Technology

As described above, lipase from Bacillus sp. was surface expressed with three different linker proteins (Ice nucleation activation protein K (InaK), BrK AutoDisplay, and pAIDA-1). The lipase immobilized on the surface of minicells via the transmembrane linker proteins was analyzed using the His-tag staining and functional enzyme activity assay as described in Examples 4-6. General lipase expression was identified by staining permeabilized cells. Then, to identify surface expression, cells were not permeabilized, which prevents staining for internally expressed lipases within the cells. The positive staining of non-permeabilized cells indicate the exogenous expression of immobilized enzyme on the surface of the cells excluding the possibility of endogenous protein expression as false positive. As shown in Examples above, the His-tag antibody detected a strong signal in a majority of the population of the cells in both the permeabilized and non-permeabilized minicells, indicating that lipase is immobilized and stabilized by the linker protein on the surface of minicells. On the other hand, the His-tag antibody detected little to no signal in the control p678-54 strains without exogenous fusion lipase expression.

Example 8. Production of Non-Inducible Protease-Deficient Minicell and/or Inducible Protease-Deficient Minicell

As described in example 1, a protease-deficient minicell producing strain is generated. The strain that spontaneously produce minicells once the knockout has been performed at all stages of cell growth. The process for producing minicell producing strain. The process for that is as follows:

A protease deficient cell line, which is the BL21 and its derivatives is used. When a strain that is not protease-deficient is used, a protease knockout vector such as the WprA-CamR vector shown in FIG. 18 can also be used to knock out protease and/or suppress protease activity in host cells via genetic engineering techniques. Interchangeably to the process described in Example 1, the following process for generating non-inducible minicell producing strain can be also used as follows:

Step 1: Transform cell-line with lambda red recombination plasmid (this plasmid codes for the Beta, Gam and Exo proteins that are involved in catalyzing homology driven recombination)

Step 2: The min knock-out construct is then used as a PCR template to amplify out the sequence of DNA that has homologous 5′ and 3′ ends to the intended knockout site for the min C, minD or minCD.

Step 3: The PCR amplified product is purified and transformed into the cell line from step 1. PCR product is the DNA that has homologous ends with an antibiotic marker between the ends to allow for selection of successful knockouts.

Step 4: The cell line from step 3 is then induced for protein production from the lambda red recombination plasmid. The encoded proteins catalyze the knockout.

Step 5: The cells are then selected for by using the appropriate antibiotics.

This cell line is then used for transformation and expression of the recombinant fusion constructs described in this disclosure, from which the minicells that express the fusion constructs on their surface can be produced.

Also, a strain that can be induced to initiate minicell production using inducible system at the specific stage of cell growth and/or at the desired timing can be generated. The inducible minicell production can be developed using inducible expression system for protein of interest. This inducible minicell production can be performed in protease-deficient minicell producing strains either using FtsZ and/or MinE overproduction via a recombinant expression cassette for overexpression FtsZ or negative regulation of the Min locus to allow for inducible repression of the MinC/MinD/MinCD proteins. Upon the treatment of induction at a desired timing, either the overexpression effect on FtsZ and/or MinE or the knockout effect on MinC/MinD/MinCD can allow for production of protease-deficient minicells.

Numbered Embodiments of the Disclosure

Notwithstanding the appended claims, the disclosure sets forth the following numbered embodiments:

Platform

-   -   1. An industrially suitable anucleated cell-based enzyme         immobilization and delivery platform, comprising:         -   a. an intact anucleated cell derived from a protease             deficient parental cell, said anucleated cell comprising an             expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface             of said cell.     -   2. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to the parental         cell.     -   3. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected from         the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose         isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase, cellulase,         endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin         lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase,         lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase,         tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase,         lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde         dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase,         xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase.     -   4. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.     -   5. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase.     -   6. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is derived from a prokaryotic cell.     -   7. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell.     -   8. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram negative         bacterial genus.     -   9. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial genus         selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia, Salmonella,         Shigella, Pseudomonas, and Agrobacterium.     -   10. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial species         selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia coli,         Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Pseudomonas         aeruginosa.     -   11. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram positive         bacterial genus.     -   12. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial genus         selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus,         Corynebacterium, and Lactobacillus.     -   13. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial species         selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus subtilis,         Corynebacterium glutamicum, and Lactobacillus acidophilus.     -   14. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is         produced from a parental bacterial cell deficient in WprA         protease.     -   15. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is         produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis parental         bacterial cell.     -   16. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is         produced from a protease deficient KO7 B. subtilis parental         bacterial cell.     -   17. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is         produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis parental         bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of: (1)         CU403,DIVIVA; (2) CU403,DIVIVB,SPO-; (3) CU403,DIVIVB; and (4)         CU403,DIVIVB1, wherein at least one protease encoding gene has         been repressed, deleted, or silenced.     -   18. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is         produced from a parental bacterial cell deficient in Lon and         OmpT proteases.     -   19. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is         produced from a protease deficient E. coli parental bacterial         cell.     -   20. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is         produced from a protease deficient E. coli parental bacterial         cell selected from the group consisting of: BL21, BL21(DE3),         BL21-AI, LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) and B8.     -   21. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein said         intact anucleated cell is derived from a eukaryotic cell.     -   22. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein.     -   23. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising         at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one         enzymatically active moiety.     -   24. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising         at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one         enzymatically active moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a             transmembrane domain and is selected from the group             consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA             (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA             (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).     -   25. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising         at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one         enzymatically active moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported             bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting             of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer             membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp             (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA             (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13             major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor             coat (Gene III).     -   26. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a second polypeptide on its surface,         in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.     -   27. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a heterologous polypeptide on its         surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.     -   28. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in         addition to the self-assembled enzyme.     -   29. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in         addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein         comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one plant cell adhesion moiety.     -   30. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in         addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein         comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one plant cell adhesion moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a             transmembrane domain and is selected from the group             consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA             (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA             (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).     -   31. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in         addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein         comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one plant cell adhesion moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported             bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting             of: LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer             membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp             (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA             (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13             major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor             coat (Gene III).     -   32. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in         addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein         comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one plant cell adhesion moiety,         -   wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a             carbohydrate binding module.     -   33. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in         addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein         comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one plant cell adhesion moiety,         -   wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a             carbohydrate binding module selected from the group             consisting of: a cellulose binding domain, a xylan binding             domain, a chitin binding domain, and a lignin binding             domain.     -   34. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a polypeptide on its surface that         increases adhesion to a plant surface, in addition to the         self-assembled enzyme.     -   35. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a plant adhesion polypeptide on its         surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.     -   36. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a carbohydrate binding module that is         displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled         enzyme.     -   37. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a heterologous carbohydrate binding         module that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the         self-assembled enzyme.     -   38. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a cellulose binding domain that is         displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled         enzyme.     -   39. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell expresses a heterologous cellulose binding         domain that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the         self-assembled enzyme.     -   40. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell is used as a resin for immobilizing a         polypeptide, wherein the anucleated cell expresses endogenous         surface expressing moiety that have a binding domain, and         wherein the binding domain is capable of binding to the         polypeptide that has a binding site.     -   41. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell is used for purifying a polypeptide, wherein the         polypeptide is immobilized to the anucleated cell by incubation.     -   42. A method of improving activity and stability of an         anucleated cell-based enzyme, comprising: applying the         anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses to a substrate,         -   wherein the anucleated cell is derived from a protease             deficient parental cell, and wherein the anucleated cell             comprises an expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to             the surface of said cell.     -   43. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to the         parental cell.     -   44. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected         from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase,         glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,         cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases,         lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase,         peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline         phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol         dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde         dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase,         succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and         laccase.     -   45. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.     -   46. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the         substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity.     -   47. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the         substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity, and         wherein said enzymatic activity is associated with fatty acid         and oily stain removal, biodiesel production via         transesterification, dough stability and conditioning in baking,         pitch control and contaminant control for production of pulp and         paper, and resolution of chiral alcohols and amines.     -   48. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase.     -   49. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase,         wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for         enzymatic activity.     -   50. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase,         wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for         enzymatic activity, and wherein said enzymatic activity is         associated with glucose to fructose conversion for production of         high-fructose corn syrup.     -   51. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         anucleated cell comprises at least two expressed self-assembled         enzymes immobilized to the surface of said cell.     -   52. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein each of         the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein,         comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one enzymatically active moiety.     -   53. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein each of         the expressed self-assembled enzymes is heterologous to the         parental cell.     -   54. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein each of         the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein,         comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one enzymatically active moiety,         -   wherein said enzymatically active moiety is selected from             the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase,             glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,             cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases,             lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase,             peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline             phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol             dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde             dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate             dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase,             mannanase, and laccase.     -   55. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein one of         the expressed self-assembled enzymes is lipase.     -   56. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein one of         the expressed self-assembled enzymes is glucose isomerase.     -   57. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein one of         the expressed self-assembled enzymes is protease.     -   58. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein each of         the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein,         comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one enzymatically active moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a             transmembrane domain and is selected from the group             consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA             (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA             (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).     -   59. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein each of         the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein,         comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one enzymatically active moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported             bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting             of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer             membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp             (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA             (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13             major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor             coat (Gene III).     -   60. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the at         least two expressed self-assembled enzymes are co-localized to a         desired locus, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled         enzymes have its enzymatic activity at the desired locus.     -   61. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         expressed self-assembled enzymes are lipase and protease.     -   62. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the         expressed self-assembled enzymes are glucose isomerase and         protease.     -   63. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the at         least two expressed self-assembled enzymes have a complimentary         function.     -   64. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the at         least two expressed self-assembled enzymes act synergistically.     -   65. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein the at         least two expressed self-assembled enzymes each work to carry         out a portion of an overall enzymatic reaction.

Compositions

-   -   1. A composition for enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform, comprising:         -   a. an intact anucleated cell derived from a protease             deficient parental cell, said anucleated cell comprising an             expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface             of said cell.     -   2. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to         the parental cell.     -   3. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one         selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase,         isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta         amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases,         beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease,         transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase,         catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease,         dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase,         acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate         dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase,         mannanase, and laccase.     -   4. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.     -   5. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose         isomerase.     -   6. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is derived from a         prokaryotic cell.     -   7. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived         minicell.     -   8. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram         negative bacterial genus.     -   9. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial         genus selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia,         Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, and Agrobacterium.     -   10. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial         species selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia coli,         Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Pseudomonas         aeruginosa.     -   11. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram         positive bacterial genus.     -   12. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial         genus selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus,         Corynebacterium, and Lactobacillus.     -   13. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial         species selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus         subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, and Lactobacillus         acidophilus.     -   14. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived         minicell that is produced from a parental bacterial cell         deficient in WprA protease.     -   15. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived         minicell that is produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis         parental bacterial cell.     -   16. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived         minicell that is produced from a protease deficient KO7 B.         subtilis parental bacterial cell.     -   17. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived         minicell that is produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis         parental bacterial cell selected from the group consisting         of: (1) CU403,DIVIVA; (2) CU403,DIVIVB,SPO-; (3) CU403,DIVIVB;         and (4) CU403,DIVIVB1, wherein at least one protease encoding         gene has been repressed, deleted, or silenced.     -   18. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived         minicell that is produced from a parental bacterial cell         deficient in Lon and OmpT proteases.     -   19. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived         minicell that is produced from a protease deficient E. coli         parental bacterial cell.     -   20. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived         minicell that is produced from a protease deficient E. coli         parental bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of:         BL21, BL21(DE3), BL21-AI, LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) and B8.     -   21. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein said intact anucleated cell is derived from a eukaryotic         cell.     -   22. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein.     -   23. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein,         comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one enzymatically active moiety.     -   24. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein,         comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one enzymatically active moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a             transmembrane domain and is selected from the group             consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA             (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA             (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).     -   25. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein,         comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least         one enzymatically active moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported             bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting             of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer             membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp             (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA             (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13             major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor             coat (Gene III).     -   26. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a second polypeptide on         its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.     -   27. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous polypeptide         on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.     -   28. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its         surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.     -   29. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its         surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion         protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and         at least one plant cell adhesion moiety.     -   30. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its         surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion         protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and         at least one plant cell adhesion moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a             transmembrane domain and is selected from the group             consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA             (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA             (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).     -   31. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its         surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion         protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and         at least one plant cell adhesion moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported             bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting             of: LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer             membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp             (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA             (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13             major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor             coat (Gene III).     -   32. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its         surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion         protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and         at least one plant cell adhesion moiety,         -   wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a             carbohydrate binding module.     -   33. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its         surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion         protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and         at least one plant cell adhesion moiety,         -   wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a             carbohydrate binding module selected from the group             consisting of: a cellulose binding domain, a xylan binding             domain, a chitin binding domain, and a lignin binding             domain.     -   34. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a polypeptide on its         surface that increases adhesion to a plant surface, in addition         to the self-assembled enzyme.     -   35. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a plant adhesion         polypeptide on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled         enzyme.     -   36. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a carbohydrate binding         module that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the         self-assembled enzyme.     -   37. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous         carbohydrate binding module that is displayed on its surface, in         addition to the self-assembled enzyme.     -   38. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a cellulose binding domain         that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the         self-assembled enzyme.     -   39. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous cellulose         binding domain that is displayed on its surface, in addition to         the self-assembled enzyme.     -   40. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell is used as a resin for immobilizing         a polypeptide, wherein the anucleated cell expresses endogenous         surface expressing moiety that have a binding domain, and         wherein the binding domain is capable of binding to the         polypeptide that has a binding site.     -   41. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell is used for purifying a polypeptide,         wherein the polypeptide is immobilized to the anucleated cell by         incubation.     -   42. A method of improving activity and stability of an         anucleated cell-based enzyme, comprising: applying the         anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery         platform as in any one of the preceding clauses to a substrate,         -   wherein the anucleated cell is derived from a protease             deficient parental cell, and wherein the anucleated cell             comprises an expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to             the surface of said cell.     -   43. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to the         parental cell.     -   44. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected         from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase,         glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,         cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases,         lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase,         peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline         phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol         dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde         dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase,         succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and         laccase.     -   45. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.     -   46. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the         substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity.     -   47. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the         substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity, and         wherein said enzymatic activity is associated with fatty acid         and oily stain removal, biodiesel production via         transesterification, dough stability and conditioning in baking,         pitch control and contaminant control for production of pulp and         paper, and resolution of chiral alcohols and amines.     -   48. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase.     -   49. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase,         wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for         enzymatic activity.     -   50. The method as in any one of the preceding clauses, wherein         the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase,         wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for         enzymatic activity, and wherein said enzymatic activity is         associated with glucose to fructose conversion for production of         high-fructose corn syrup.     -   51. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the anucleated cell comprises at least two expressed         self-assembled enzymes immobilized to the surface of said cell.     -   52. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion         protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and         at least one enzymatically active moiety.     -   53. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is         heterologous to the parental cell.     -   54. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion         protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and         at least one enzymatically active moiety,         -   wherein said enzymatically active moiety is selected from             the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase,             glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase,             cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases,             lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase,             peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline             phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol             dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde             dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate             dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase,             mannanase, and laccase.     -   55. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is lipase.     -   56. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is glucose         isomerase.     -   57. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is protease.     -   58. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion         protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and         at least one enzymatically active moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a             transmembrane domain and is selected from the group             consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA             (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA             (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).     -   59. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion         protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and         at least one enzymatically active moiety,         -   wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported             bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting             of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer             membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp             (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA             (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13             major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor             coat (Gene III).     -   60. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes are         co-localized to a desired locus, wherein each of the expressed         self-assembled enzymes have its enzymatic activity at the         desired locus.     -   61. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the expressed self-assembled enzymes are lipase and         protease.     -   62. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the expressed self-assembled enzymes are glucose         isomerase and protease.     -   63. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes have a         complimentary function.     -   64. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes act         synergistically.     -   65. The composition as in any one of the preceding clauses,         wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes each         work to carry out a portion of an overall enzymatic reaction.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All references, articles, publications, patents, patent publications, and patent applications cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entireties for all purposes. However, mention of any reference, article, publication, patent, patent publication, and patent application cited herein is not, and should not be taken as an acknowledgment or any form of suggestion that they constitute valid prior art or form part of the common general knowledge in any country in the world.

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What is claimed is:
 1. An industrially suitable anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform, comprising: a. an intact anucleated cell derived from a protease deficient parental cell, said anucleated cell comprising at least one expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface of said cell.
 2. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to the parental cell.
 3. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase.
 4. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.
 5. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase.
 6. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is derived from a prokaryotic cell.
 7. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell.
 8. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram negative bacterial genus.
 9. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial genus selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia, Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, and Agrobacterium.
 10. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial species selected from the group consisting of: Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
 11. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a gram positive bacterial genus.
 12. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial genus selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus, Corynebacterium, and Lactobacillus.
 13. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is produced from a bacterial species selected from the group consisting of: Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, and Lactobacillus acidophilus.
 14. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a parental bacterial cell deficient in WprA protease.
 15. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis parental bacterial cell.
 16. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient KO7 B. subtilis parental bacterial cell.
 17. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient B. subtilis parental bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of: (1) CU403,DIVIVA; (2) CU403,DIVIVB,SPO-; (3) CU403,DIVIVB; and (4) CU403,DIVIVB1, wherein at least one protease encoding gene has been repressed, deleted, or silenced.
 18. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a parental bacterial cell deficient in Lon and OmpT proteases.
 19. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient E. coli parental bacterial cell.
 20. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is a bacterially derived minicell that is produced from a protease deficient E. coli parental bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of: BL21, BL21(DE3), BL21-AI, LPS-modified BL21 (DE3) and B8.
 21. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein said intact anucleated cell is derived from a eukaryotic cell.
 22. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein.
 23. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety.
 24. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a transmembrane domain and is selected from the group consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).
 25. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor coat (Gene III).
 26. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a second polypeptide on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 27. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous polypeptide on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 28. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 29. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety.
 30. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a transmembrane domain and is selected from the group consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).
 31. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting of: LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor coat (Gene III).
 32. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a carbohydrate binding module.
 33. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a fusion protein on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme, said fusion protein comprising: at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one plant cell adhesion moiety, wherein said plant cell adhesion moiety comprises a carbohydrate binding module selected from the group consisting of: a cellulose binding domain, a xylan binding domain, a chitin binding domain, and a lignin binding domain.
 34. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a polypeptide on its surface that increases adhesion to a plant surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 35. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a plant adhesion polypeptide on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 36. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a carbohydrate binding module that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 37. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous carbohydrate binding module that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 38. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a cellulose binding domain that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 39. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell expresses a heterologous cellulose binding domain that is displayed on its surface, in addition to the self-assembled enzyme.
 40. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell is used as a resin for immobilizing a polypeptide, wherein the anucleated cell expresses endogenous surface expressing moiety that have a binding domain, and wherein the binding domain is capable of binding to the polypeptide that has a binding site.
 41. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell is used for purifying a polypeptide, wherein the polypeptide is immobilized to the anucleated cell by incubation.
 42. A method of improving activity and stability of an anucleated cell-based enzyme, comprising: applying the anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1 to a substrate, wherein the anucleated cell is derived from a protease deficient parental cell, and wherein the anucleated cell comprises an expressed self-assembled enzyme immobilized to the surface of said cell.
 43. The method according to claim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is heterologous to the parental cell.
 44. The method according to claim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is at least one selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase.
 45. The method according to claim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase.
 46. The method according to claim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity.
 47. The method according to claim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is lipase, wherein the substrate is reacted with the lipase for enzymatic activity, and wherein said enzymatic activity is associated with fatty acid and oily stain removal, biodiesel production via transesterification, dough stability and conditioning in baking, pitch control and contaminant control for production of pulp and paper, and resolution of chiral alcohols and amines.
 48. The method according to claim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase.
 49. The method according to claim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase, wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for enzymatic activity.
 50. The method according to claim 42, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzyme is glucose isomerase, wherein the substrate is reacted with the glucose isomerase for enzymatic activity, and wherein said enzymatic activity is associated with glucose to fructose conversion for production of high-fructose corn syrup.
 51. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 1, wherein the anucleated cell comprises at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes immobilized to the surface of said cell.
 52. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety.
 53. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is heterologous to the parental cell.
 54. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said enzymatically active moiety is selected from the group consisting of: esterase, lipase, isomerase, glucose isomerase, amylase, alpha amylase, beta amylase, cellulase, endoglucanases, exoglucanases, beta-glucosidases, lyase, pectin lyase, protease, transglutaminase, desaturase, peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, tyrosinase, urease, dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, xylanase, phytase, mannanase, and laccase.
 55. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51, wherein one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is lipase.
 56. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51, wherein one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is glucose isomerase.
 57. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51, wherein one of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is protease.
 58. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises a transmembrane domain and is selected from the group consisting of: an ice nucleation protein (INP), BrkA (Bordetella serum-resistance killing protein), and AIDA (Adhesin Involved in Diffuse Adherence).
 59. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes is a fusion protein, comprising at least one surface expressing moiety and at least one enzymatically active moiety, wherein said surface expressing moiety comprises an exported bacterial protein and is selected from the group consisting of LamB (lambda receptor), OprF (P. aeruginosa outer membrane protein F), OmpA (outer membrane protein A), Lpp (Lipoprotein), MalE (Maltose binding protein), PhoA (Alkaline phosphatase), Bla (TEM-1 B-lactamase), F1 or M13 major coat (derived from Gene VIII), and F1 or M13 minor coat (Gene III).
 60. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 51, wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes are co-localized to a desired locus, wherein each of the expressed self-assembled enzymes have its enzymatic activity at the desired locus.
 61. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 60, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzymes are lipase and protease.
 62. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to claim 60, wherein the expressed self-assembled enzymes are glucose isomerase and protease.
 63. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to 51, wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes have a complimentary function.
 64. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to 51, wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes act synergistically.
 65. The anucleated cell-based enzyme immobilization and delivery platform according to 51, wherein the at least two expressed self-assembled enzymes each work to carry out a portion of an overall enzymatic reaction. 